What is the Dominate in the context of Roman history?

The Dominate is a periodization used by historians to describe a specific era of the Roman Empire during late antiquity. It is understood as the period that followed the earlier Principate.

Who is credited with introducing the concepts of the Principate and the Dominate for periodizing the Roman Imperial era?

The historian Theodor Mommsen is credited with introducing the concepts of the Principate and the Dominate to periodize the Roman Imperial era. These terms were derived from his lectures and later published works.

What is the current scholarly view on the term 'Dominate' for periodizing Roman history?

The term 'Dominate' is now considered a near-obsolete term by many historians. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, for instance, regards it as such.

According to Theodor Mommsen, what was the primary model for the Dominate period?

According to Theodor Mommsen, the Dominate period took the oriental ruler as its model. This marked a significant shift from the earlier Principate.

How did Mommsen describe the territorial and administrative unity of the Roman Empire during the Principate versus the Dominate?

Mommsen contrasted the Principate, where the unity of the Empire generally prevailed, with the Dominate, where the division of the Empire became prevalent. This division also led to a split in nationalities between Greek and Latin halves, and Italy lost its previously privileged status.

What administrative and military changes did Mommsen associate with the Dominate period?

Mommsen noted a complete reform of the administration during the Dominate. He also observed that the military machine transformed into an effective and mobile force, contrasting with the Principate's reliance on frontier troops. Additionally, foreigners, particularly Germans, began to join the army in greater numbers.

What financial and economic developments did Mommsen highlight for the Dominate era?

Mommsen pointed to the development of an effective finance administration during the Dominate. He also noted that Constantine the Great reintroduced the universally current gold coin known as the Solidus.

What did Mommsen suggest about religion during the Dominate period?

Mommsen suggested that a new religion emerged during the Dominate period, which, while not explicitly Christian in his description, differed significantly from the religious practices of the Principate.

What new title for the Emperor gained prominence during the Dominate, and what was its origin?

The word 'dominus,' which originally denoted slave owners, became a new title for the Emperor during the Dominate. This title, signifying 'lord,' gradually prevailed over earlier forms of address.

When did the title 'dominus' first appear on Roman coins, and in conjunction with what other title?

According to Mommsen's account, the title 'dominus' first appeared on coins during the reign of Emperor Aurelian. It was combined with the title 'deus,' forming the phrase 'domino et deo nato' (born to be lord and god).

How did the ceremony of imperial adoration change from the Principate to the Dominate?

During the Principate, people typically shook hands with or kissed the Emperor, similar to interacting with other distinguished persons. Diocletian, however, introduced the ceremony of genuflection, which involved bowing or kneeling, moving the practice closer to oriental customs.

What was the significance of Diocletian's introduction of genuflection?

Diocletian's introduction of genuflection as part of the imperial adoration ceremony represented a move towards oriental courtly practices. This change, along with the adoption of the title 'dominus,' was met with opposition in Rome.

How did the concept of the Emperor's divinity interact with Christianity during the Dominate?

The idea of the Emperor as a living deity, prevalent in some aspects of the Dominate, was irreconcilable with Christianity. While the concept of a 'god on earth' was eventually abandoned, the notion of the Emperor as a 'lord on earth' persisted.

On what basis did Theodor Mommsen develop his concept of the Dominate?

Theodor Mommsen's concept of the Dominate was primarily based on constitutional law, particularly focusing on the changing power and embodiment of the emperor, linked to the idea of 'nomos empsychos' (living law).

How did historians, influenced by Mommsen, characterize the government of the Dominate period in contrast to earlier eras?

Historians influenced by Mommsen described the Dominate as the foundation of a Pan-European government characterized by bureaucratic absolute monarchy. This was seen as a stark contrast to the laissez-faire approach and emphasis on individual economic self-determination prevalent during the Republic and the Principate.

Which historian significantly disputed Mommsen's division of the Roman Imperial era into Principate and Dominate?

Jochen Bleicken, in 1978, disputed Mommsen's interpretation. He argued that the division between the Principate and the Dominate was not based on any fundamental constitutional change and that both terms were unsuitable for historical periodization.

What were Jochen Bleicken's main arguments against Mommsen's periodization of the Roman Empire?

Bleicken argued that there was no constitutional shift to justify separating the Principate from the Dominate. He also suggested that Mommsen's use of the term 'Dominate' was intended to make the later Roman Empire appear 'un-Roman' by comparing it to the oriental Persian court, thereby separating it from Greco-Roman Antiquity.

How did Bleicken suggest Mommsen's perspective on the Dominate was influenced by his own time?

Bleicken asserted that Mommsen's view of the Dominate was less a reflection of Roman reality and more a product of the socio-political climate of the 18th and 19th centuries. This era, following the Napoleonic period and the experience of various despots, led people to perceive a sharp contrast between their freedoms and those of earlier historical periods.

What did Markéta Melounová's analysis of judicial trials reveal about the differences between the Principate and the Dominate?

Markéta Melounová's analysis of judicial trials, specifically concerning the punishment of religious and political crimes, found that there was not a significant difference in practices between the periods of the Dominate and the Principate.

What was the 'Solidus' introduced by Constantine?

The Solidus was a gold coin that Constantine the Great reintroduced. Its reintroduction signifies a development in the Roman financial administration during the later imperial period.

What does the title 'Pius felix' signify in the context of Roman imperial titles?

The title 'Pius felix,' which appeared early in the imperial period, was imbued with supernatural overtones. It was used in conjunction with imperial titles, suggesting divine favor or connection.

What was the significance of Italy losing its privileged status during the Dominate?

The loss of Italy's privileged status during the Dominate marked a significant administrative shift. It indicated a decentralization and reform of the empire's governance, moving away from the traditional centrality of Italy.

What was the difference in military focus between the Principate and the Dominate, as described by Mommsen?

Mommsen described the Principate's military as primarily consisting of frontier troops. In contrast, he characterized the Dominate's military as having transformed into an effective and mobile force, also noting the increased inclusion of foreigners, such as Germans.

What does the concept of 'nomos empsychos' relate to in Mommsen's theory of the Dominate?

The concept of 'nomos empsychos,' which translates to 'living law,' is related to Mommsen's understanding of the Dominate. It pertains to his constitutional law-based interpretation of the emperor's power and role during this period.

What was the perceived contrast between the government of the Dominate and that of the Republic/Principate, according to some historians?

Some historians, following Mommsen's framework, perceived the government of the Dominate as a bureaucratic absolute monarchy that formed a Pan-European system. This was seen as a stark departure from the more laissez-faire approach and emphasis on individual economic freedom characteristic of the Republic and the Principate.

What does the term 'Principate' refer to in Roman history?

The Principate refers to the earlier period of the Roman Empire, which preceded the Dominate. It is characterized by a system where the emperor held power while maintaining the facade of republican institutions.

What does the term 'Late Antiquity' signify in relation to the Dominate?

Late Antiquity is the historical period during which the Dominate is situated. It is a transitional era in Roman history, bridging the classical world and the early Middle Ages.

What was the nature of the division of the Empire during the Dominate, according to Mommsen?

Mommsen described the Dominate as a period marked by the division of the Roman Empire into distinct Greek and Latin halves. This division extended to the nationalities within the empire, shifting from the Latin-Greek orientation of the Principate to a Greek-Latin one.

How did the role of the Emperor's capital city change between the Principate and the Dominate?

Mommsen indicated that there was a different capital city during the Dominate period. This suggests a shift in the administrative center of the empire away from Rome or other traditional centers.

What was the historical significance of the title 'Augustus' in the context of imperial titles?

The title 'Augustus' was significant because, in its older tripartite form, it highlighted the magisterial nature of the Emperor's position. During the Dominate, there was an increased emphasis on this title, with variations like 'perpetuus Augustus' and 'semper Augustus' appearing.

What does the phrase 'domino et deo nato' mean, and in what context did it appear?

The phrase 'domino et deo nato' translates to 'born to be lord and god.' It appeared on coins during the reign of Emperor Aurelian, signifying the growing divine and lordly status attributed to the emperor.

What opposition did the new imperial practices of the Dominate arouse in Rome?

The new imperial practices, such as the introduction of genuflection and the emphasis on the Emperor as a divine or lordly figure, aroused opposition in Rome. These practices were seen as deviating from Roman traditions and were difficult to reconcile with existing beliefs, including Christianity.

What was the relationship between the Dominate and the concept of 'un-Roman' in Bleicken's critique?

Jochen Bleicken suggested that the term 'Dominate' might have been used by Mommsen to portray the later Roman Empire as 'un-Roman.' This was achieved by drawing parallels with the oriental Persian court, thereby distinguishing it from the classical Greco-Roman tradition.

What does the 'Ancient Rome portal' link suggest about the broader context of the Dominate?

The 'Ancient Rome portal' link indicates that the Dominate is a part of the larger historical and political framework of ancient Rome. It connects the specific periodization to the broader study of Roman civilization, politics, and history.

Dominate Wiki: Dominate: The Imperial Shift

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Background: Mommsen's Conception

Origin of the Terms

The concepts of the Principate and the Dominate as distinct periodizations of the Roman Imperial era were introduced by the historian Theodor Mommsen. He proposed this division based on his interpretation of changes in the Roman Empire's constitutional and political structure during late antiquity. While influential, these terms are now largely considered by contemporary scholars to be unsuitable for precise historical periodization.

Characteristics of the Dominate

Mommsen characterized the Dominate, particularly the era of Diocletian and Constantine, as a period of decline and a departure from the earlier Principate. Key features he identified include:

Imperial Model: An adoption of the oriental ruler as a model, moving away from the earlier magisterial nature of the Emperor's position.
Division of Empire: A shift towards the division of the Empire into distinct Greek and Latin halves, contrasting with the unity of the Principate.
Administrative Reform: A complete overhaul of the administration, with Italy losing its privileged status and a new capital city emerging.
Military Transformation: The military evolved into a more effective and mobile force, distinct from the frontier-focused troops of the Principate. Foreigners, notably Germans, began to join the army in significant numbers.
Financial Administration: The development of an effective finance administration, including Constantine's reintroduction of the gold Solidus.
Religious Shift: The emergence of a new religion that differed from that of the Principate, though Mommsen notes it was not exactly Christian in its early form.

Imperial Titles and Adulation

Mommsen observed a significant change in imperial titles and the associated ceremonies during the Dominate:

Emphasis on Augustus: Increased prominence of the title Augustus, often combined with Pius felix, perpetuus Augustus, and semper Augustus, imbuing the position with greater divine or perpetual authority.
Emergence of 'Dominus': The title dominus (lord), initially associated with slave owners, became a common form of address for the Emperor, and eventually for deities. This title began appearing on coins, notably combined with deus (god) under Aurelian, signifying a profound shift in imperial ideology.
Ceremony of Adoration: Diocletian introduced the ceremony of genuflection, a practice closer to oriental court customs, which contrasted sharply with the more accessible interactions of the Principate and caused friction, particularly with Christian sensibilities regarding the concept of a living god on earth.

Imperial Structure and Ideology

Division and Centralization

Mommsen's analysis suggests that the Dominate saw a move towards the division of the vast Roman Empire, creating distinct Greek-speaking Eastern and Latin-speaking Western spheres. This contrasted with the perceived unity under the Principate. Concurrently, there was a significant reform and centralization of the administration, moving away from the more decentralized structures of the earlier period.

Military Evolution

The military underwent substantial changes. While the Principate relied heavily on frontier troops, the Dominate era saw the development of a more mobile and effective field army. This period also witnessed an increased integration of foreign elements, particularly Germanic peoples, into the Roman military structure, reflecting broader demographic and political shifts.

Financial and Religious Shifts

Economically, the Dominate period saw the establishment of a more robust financial administration. Constantine's reintroduction of a stable gold currency, the Solidus, was a critical development in stabilizing the imperial economy. Religiously, while Mommsen notes a new religion emerged, distinct from the paganism of the Principate, its relationship with Christianity was complex, leading to ideological conflicts concerning the divine nature of the Emperor.

Mommsen's Definitive Statements

From Principate to Dominate

Theodor Mommsen, in his seminal work, articulated the distinction between the Principate and the Dominate:

Mommsen described the era of Diocletian as bearing "the mark of decline, and does not attract our sympathy." He contrasted the Dominate sharply with the Principate's position and the Republic, noting:

"The dominate of Diocletian and Constantine differs sharply from the principate's position, the Republic. The oriental ruler provides the model for the dominate. Whereas the unity of the Empire prevailed under the principate, the division of the Empire prevailed under the dominate. The nationalities divided into a Greek and Latin half. Whereas the principate had been Latin-Greek, the dominate was Greek-Latin. There was a different capital city; Italy loses its privileged status, and there is a complete reform of the administration. The military machines turns into an effective and mobile one; the principate had only frontier troops. Foreigners now join the army, above all Germans. An effective finance administration also develops and Constantine reintroduces the universally current gold coin, the Solidus. A new religion emerges which, although not exactly Christian, nevertheless still differs from that of the principate."

Evolution of Imperial Titles

Mommsen further elaborated on the shift in imperial titles and the growing emphasis on divine authority:

Regarding the transition in titles and ideology, Mommsen noted:

"There was increased emphasis on the title Augustus, since the old tripartite title highlighted the magisterial nature of the Emperor's position. The title Pius felix made an early appearance and was already imbued with supernatural overtones. Later there was frequent use of the titles perpetuus Augustus and semper Augustus (forever Augustus). The word dominus, which initially denoted slave-owners, became a new title for the Emperor, as well as for a god. Throughout the entire principate this title vied with the legitimate one; even the earlier Emperors had difficulty fending off adulation of this kind. Gradually the dominate prevailed. Domitian was already a key figure in the process. In the third century this way of addressing the Emperor began to gain ground. The coins are an expression of official power: in the reign of Aurelian the title dominus first appeared on coins, combined with deus: domino et deo nato - born to be lord and god. We might supplement this with: servi et cives Romani - Roman citizens born to be slaves. From then onwards it appeared more frequently on coins, especially in the case of the other Emperors, but still the Emperor did not style himself as such until the era of Constantine. This marks another victory for the Greek element: among the Greeks deification of the living is as ancient as monarchy itself. The ceremony of adoration was a practical application of this; people shook hands with the earlier Emperors, or kissed them, like other distinguished persons. Diocletian introduced genuflection. This, too represented a move closer to the oriental idea. It aroused opposition in Rome. The idea of the Emperor as a deity could not be reconciled with Christianity: the idea of the god on earth was abandoned, the lord on earth remained."

Historiographical Debate

Bleicken's Challenge

The historian Jochen Bleicken, in 1978, critically challenged Mommsen's division of the Roman Imperial era into Principate and Dominate. Bleicken argued that this division was not based on fundamental constitutional changes but was rather an interpretive framework imposed by Mommsen.

Bleicken contended that the terms were unsuitable for accurate periodization and suggested they might have been influenced by a desire to portray the later Roman Empire as "un-Roman" and distinct from the classical Greco-Roman tradition, possibly reflecting 18th and 19th-century political sentiments concerning absolutism versus liberty.

Continuity in Practice

Further analysis by Markéta Melounová in 2012 examined judicial trials concerning religious and political crimes. Her findings indicated that the actual legal practices and punishments did not significantly differ between the periods Mommsen designated as the Principate and the Dominate, suggesting a greater continuity than Mommsen's periodization implied.

Modern Perspective

Contemporary academic consensus, as reflected in resources like the Oxford Classical Dictionary, regards the term Dominate as largely obsolete. While Mommsen's conceptualization was historically significant, modern scholarship tends to favor more nuanced approaches to understanding the evolution of the Roman Empire, recognizing continuities and complexities that transcend simple binary periodizations.

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References

Ando 2001, p. 409; Bleicken 1978, pp. 6, 9.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Dominate Wikipedia page

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Dominate: The Imperial Shift

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Background: Mommsen's Conception 📜

🏛️ Origin of the Terms

👑 Characteristics of the Dominate

🗣️ Imperial Titles and Adulation

Imperial Structure and Ideology ⚖️

🌍 Division and Centralization

⚔️ Military Evolution

💰 Financial and Religious Shifts

Mommsen's Definitive Statements 🗣️

📖 From Principate to Dominate

📜 Evolution of Imperial Titles

Historiographical Debate 🧐

❓ Bleicken's Challenge

⚖️ Continuity in Practice

📚 Modern Perspective

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Background: Mommsen's Conception

Origin of the Terms

Characteristics of the Dominate

Imperial Titles and Adulation

Imperial Structure and Ideology

Division and Centralization

Military Evolution

Financial and Religious Shifts

Mommsen's Definitive Statements

From Principate to Dominate

Evolution of Imperial Titles

Historiographical Debate

Bleicken's Challenge

Continuity in Practice

Modern Perspective

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice