What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and what are its primary components?

The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a global climate phenomenon characterized by variations in winds and sea surface temperatures across the tropical Pacific Ocean. It comprises two main components: El Niño, the warming phase of sea surface temperatures, and La Niña, the cooling phase. The Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component, which involves an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and western Pacific Ocean waters.

How frequently do El Niño and La Niña events occur, and what is their typical duration?

El Niño and La Niña events typically occur every two to seven years, with varying intensity. These events usually last for about a year each, interspersed with neutral periods of lower intensity. While El Niño events can be more intense, La Niña events may repeat more frequently and last longer.

What is the Bjerknes feedback mechanism in the context of ENSO?

The Bjerknes feedback, identified by Jacob Bjerknes in 1969, describes a positive feedback loop between the atmosphere and ocean in the ENSO cycle. It explains how weaker easterly trade winds lead to a surge of warm surface waters eastward and reduced upwelling, resulting in warmer sea surface temperatures (El Niño). This warming, in turn, further weakens the Walker circulation and trade winds, reinforcing the El Niño state.

How does the Southern Oscillation relate to El Niño and La Niña phases?

The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric part of ENSO, specifically an oscillation in surface air pressure between the eastern and western tropical Pacific. El Niño episodes are associated with lower pressure in the eastern Pacific and higher pressure in the western Pacific, resulting in a negative Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). Conversely, La Niña episodes feature higher pressure in the east and lower pressure in the west, corresponding to a positive SOI.

What is the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and how is it calculated?

The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is a measure of the strength of the Southern Oscillation, the atmospheric component of ENSO. It is calculated by measuring the difference in surface air pressure between Tahiti in the Pacific Ocean and Darwin, Australia, which is located on the Indian Ocean.

How does the neutral phase of ENSO differ from the El Niño and La Niña phases?

During the neutral ENSO phase, sea surface temperatures, tropical precipitation, and wind patterns are near their average conditions. This phase acts as a transition between the warm El Niño and cold La Niña phases, and other climate patterns like the North Atlantic Oscillation may exert more influence on weather during these periods.

What defines an El Niño phase in terms of ocean and atmospheric conditions?

An El Niño phase is established when the Walker circulation weakens or reverses, and the Hadley circulation strengthens. This leads to a band of warm ocean water developing in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific, including off the coast of South America, due to reduced or absent upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water. This warming shifts atmospheric pressure, causing lower pressure in the east and higher pressure in the west, leading to reduced rainfall over areas like Indonesia and northern Australia.

What are the key characteristics of a La Niña phase?

A La Niña phase is characterized by a stronger Walker circulation, leading to cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures across the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. This is accompanied by higher atmospheric pressure in the eastern Pacific and lower pressure in the western Pacific. La Niña events typically result in increased strength of the Pacific trade winds and opposite rainfall effects in regions like Australia compared to El Niño.

What is ENSO Modoki, and how does it differ from the canonical El Niño?

ENSO Modoki, also known as Central Pacific (CP) ENSO or 'dateline' ENSO, is a variation where temperature anomalies are centered in the central Pacific (Niño 3.4 region) rather than the eastern Pacific (Niño 1 and 2 regions). Its effects on global weather patterns, such as hurricane activity and rainfall distribution, can differ from those of the traditional Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO.

What is ENSO Costero, and where are its primary impacts felt?

ENSO Costero, or Eastern Pacific ENSO, is a phenomenon where sea surface temperature anomalies are concentrated along the South American coastline, particularly off Peru and Ecuador. Its effects are more localized, often leading to increased rainfall and flooding in coastal Ecuador and northern Peru during warm phases, and droughts along the Peruvian coast during cold phases.

How do different countries monitor and declare ENSO conditions?

Various countries and meteorological agencies use different thresholds and criteria to declare ENSO events. For example, the US Climate Prediction Center monitors the Niño 3.4 region, requiring forecasts of sea surface temperatures to be 0.5°C above average for several seasons. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology considers trade winds, SOI, and sea surface temperatures, while the Japan Meteorological Agency requires a five-month average SST deviation of over 0.5°C in the Niño 3 region for six consecutive months.

How does ENSO influence global climate variability?

ENSO is a significant driver of internal climate variability, influencing weather patterns across much of the globe through teleconnections. El Niño events tend to cause short-term spikes in global average surface temperature, while La Niña events cause short-term cooling. The relative frequency of these events can affect global temperature trends over decadal timescales.

What is the impact of El Niño on tropical cyclone activity in different ocean basins?

El Niño years generally lead to less active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic Ocean due to increased vertical wind shear and a drier atmosphere, which inhibit cyclone formation and intensification. Conversely, El Niño favors above-normal hurricane activity in the Eastern Pacific basin. In the Western Pacific, tropical cyclone formation tends to shift eastward during El Niño events.

How does ENSO affect the fishing industry, particularly in developing countries?

When El Niño conditions persist, the resulting ocean warming and reduced upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters can severely impact local fishing industries, especially in developing countries dependent on marine resources. This reduction in fish populations, such as anchovies off the coast of Peru, can lead to serious economic consequences and fishery collapses.

What are some of the health and social impacts associated with ENSO cycles?

ENSO cycles are correlated with changes in the incidence of certain epidemic diseases, particularly those transmitted by mosquitoes like malaria, dengue fever, and Rift Valley fever. Some studies also suggest a link between ENSO events, especially El Niño years, and an increased risk of civil conflicts in affected countries.

How do ENSO events influence ecological systems, such as tropical forests and coral reefs?

ENSO events, particularly strong El Niño phases, can lead to prolonged dry periods in tropical forests, resulting in widespread fires and significant changes in forest structure and species composition. These events also contribute to large-scale coral bleaching events due to ocean warming, causing substantial losses of live coral globally.

What are the general rainfall patterns associated with El Niño across different continents?

Generally, El Niño events are associated with below-average rainfall in regions like Indonesia, northern South America, and parts of Africa and Australia. Conversely, they tend to bring above-average rainfall to southeastern South America, eastern equatorial Africa, and the southern United States.

How does ENSO influence weather patterns in Africa?

La Niña typically brings wetter-than-normal conditions to southern Africa from December to February, while causing drier conditions over equatorial East Africa during the same period. El Niño's effects on rainfall in southern Africa differ between winter and summer rainfall areas, with winter rainfall areas often experiencing higher rainfall and summer rainfall areas facing increased drought risk, especially during strong El Niño events.

What are the observed impacts of ENSO on Antarctica?

During El Niño conditions, Antarctica experiences high-pressure anomalies over the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas, leading to reduced sea ice and increased poleward heat flux in those sectors and the Ross Sea. The Weddell Sea, conversely, tends to become colder with more sea ice. La Niña events typically produce the opposite anomalies.

How does ENSO affect weather patterns in Asia?

In Western Asia, El Niño phases are generally associated with increased precipitation during the November-April rainy season, while La Niña phases bring reduced precipitation. During El Niño years, the warm water pool shifts eastward, causing drought in the western Pacific, including areas like Singapore, which experienced its driest February on record in 2010.

What are the primary impacts of ENSO on Australia's climate?

ENSO is a major driver of climate variability across most of Australia. El Niño events are strongly correlated with reduced rainfall across the continent, warmer temperatures in the south, and a delayed monsoon onset in the tropical north. La Niña events, conversely, are linked to increased rainfall, particularly along the eastern seaboard, often leading to major floods.

How does ENSO influence weather patterns in North America?

La Niña typically brings above-average precipitation to the northern Midwest, northern Rockies, Northern California, and parts of the Pacific Northwest, while causing below-average precipitation in the southwestern and southeastern states. El Niño generally leads to milder winters in Canada and wetter conditions along the US Gulf Coast and Southeast, with drier conditions in Hawaii, the Ohio Valley, Pacific Northwest, and Rocky Mountains.

What is the Tehuantepecer wind, and how is it related to ENSO?

The Tehuantepecer is a strong mountain-gap wind that occurs in Mexico and Guatemala, primarily between October and February. Wind magnitude is greater during El Niño years compared to La Niña years, likely due to more frequent cold frontal incursions associated with El Niño winters, which can enhance thunderstorm activity when interacting with the Intertropical Convergence Zone.

How do ENSO events affect Pacific islands like Fiji and Samoa?

During El Niño events, Fiji generally experiences drier-than-normal conditions, increasing the risk of drought, with impacts often felt about a year after the event begins. In the Samoan Islands, El Niño can lead to below-average rainfall and higher temperatures, potentially causing droughts and forest fires, along with an increased risk of tropical cyclones affecting the islands.

What are the specific impacts of El Niño on the Galápagos Islands' ecosystem?

During El Niño events, the weakening of trade winds around the Galápagos Islands leads to warmer sea surface temperatures and a decrease in nutrient-rich upwelling. This disrupts the marine food web, causing a trophic cascade that impacts populations of primary producers, fish, and top predators like sharks, penguins, and seals, sometimes leading to starvation and population declines.

Is there evidence of ENSO events occurring in geological timescales?

Yes, there is strong evidence for El Niño events occurring during the early Holocene epoch, approximately 10,000 years ago. Paleoclimatic archives, including chemical signatures in coral specimens dating back around 13,000 years, indicate the presence of ENSO-like events throughout Earth's history, with varying modes and impacts depending on the geological and atmospheric conditions of the time.

How might ENSO have influenced historical human civilizations and events?

ENSO events may have played a role in the decline of ancient civilizations, such as the Moche culture in Peru. Furthermore, a strong El Niño event between 1789 and 1793 is suggested to have contributed to poor crop yields in Europe, potentially influencing the French Revolution, and the extreme weather from the 1876-77 El Niño caused devastating famines, particularly in northern China.

What is the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), and how does it relate to ENSO?

The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a major pattern of variability in the tropical atmosphere, characterized by a coupling of atmospheric circulation and deep convection that travels eastward. Its interannual variability is partly linked to ENSO; strong MJO activity is often observed preceding El Niño onset, is typically absent during some El Niño maxima, and is generally greater during La Niña episodes.

How does the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) differ from ENSO?

The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is a climate pattern centered over the mid-latitude Pacific, characterized by alternating phases of warm and cool surface waters north of 20°N. Unlike ENSO, which primarily affects the tropics and subtropics with shorter, more frequent cycles, the PDO operates on longer, irregular interannual-to-interdecadal timescales (decades) and influences mid-latitude temperatures and precipitation patterns.

What is the Pacific Meridional Mode (PMM), and how does it interact with ENSO?

The Pacific Meridional Mode (PMM) is a climate mode in the North Pacific characterized by coupled changes in trade winds and sea surface temperatures. While distinct from ENSO, PMM events can influence or trigger ENSO events, particularly Central Pacific El Niño events. It also modulates hurricane and typhoon activity and affects precipitation patterns around the Pacific basin.

What is meant by 'ENSO flavors' or variations like ENSO Modoki and ENSO Costero?

'ENSO flavors' refer to different spatial patterns of sea surface temperature anomalies within the ENSO cycle. ENSO Modoki (Central Pacific ENSO) has anomalies centered in the mid-Pacific, differing from the canonical Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO, which has anomalies near the South American coast. ENSO Costero specifically refers to anomalies concentrated along the South American coast.

What is the scientific consensus regarding the impact of climate change on ENSO?

The impact of climate change on ENSO is uncertain, with different climate models making varying predictions. While there's no definitive sign of changes in the physical phenomenon itself, climate change may exacerbate ENSO's effects, such as increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report projects an increase in precipitation variance related to ENSO and significant regional changes due to altered teleconnections.

How does ENSO influence global average surface temperatures?

El Niño events typically cause short-term spikes in the global average surface temperature, usually lasting about a year. Conversely, La Niña events tend to cause short-term cooling. The relative frequency and intensity of El Niño compared to La Niña events can influence global temperature trends over timescales of around ten years.

What is the 'atmospheric bridge' mechanism in relation to ENSO's global influence?

The 'atmospheric bridge' refers to how ENSO, through enhanced deep convection over warm Pacific waters, generates Rossby waves. These waves propagate poleward and eastward, influencing atmospheric circulation patterns thousands of kilometers away from the tropical Pacific, thereby teleconnecting ENSO's effects to distant regions and altering surface temperature, humidity, and wind distributions.

What is the significance of the 'Niño regions' in ENSO monitoring?

The Niño regions are specific areas in the tropical Pacific Ocean where sea surface temperatures are monitored to determine the current ENSO phase. Key regions include Niño 1+2 (easternmost Pacific), Niño 3 (eastern-central Pacific), and Niño 3.4 (central Pacific), which is often used by the US Climate Prediction Center for ENSO declarations.

How did the term 'El Niño' originate?

The term 'El Niño,' meaning 'The Boy' in Spanish, was first applied to a climate phenomenon by Peruvian sailors who noticed a warm, south-flowing ocean current that was most noticeable around Christmas time. The name later became associated with the Christ Child because of this timing.

What is the relationship between ENSO and the Walker circulation?

The Walker circulation is an east-west atmospheric overturning circulation in the equatorial Pacific. During El Niño, warming in the eastern tropical Pacific weakens or reverses the downward branch of this circulation, while cooler conditions in the west lead to less rain and downward air, causing the Walker Circulation to weaken or even reverse.

How does ENSO affect sea surface height anomalies?

Sea surface height (SSH) changes in the equatorial Pacific region with ENSO. El Niño causes a positive SSH anomaly (raised sea level) due to thermal expansion of warmer waters, while La Niña causes a negative SSH anomaly (lowered sea level) due to contraction from cooler waters.

What is the 'Antarctic dipole mode' in relation to ENSO?

The Antarctic dipole mode describes the pattern of sea ice and atmospheric pressure anomalies around Antarctica that are influenced by ENSO. El Niño typically leads to high-pressure anomalies in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas, causing reduced sea ice, while La Niña produces the opposite effect.

How do ENSO events influence the monsoon systems in Asia and Australia?

El Niño events often lead to drought in areas like India and northwestern Australia by shifting the warm water pool and associated rainfall eastward, away from the western Pacific. Conversely, La Niña events can bring increased rainfall to parts of Asia and eastern Australia due to stronger trade winds and a westward shift of the warm pool.

What is the significance of ENSO in the context of climate change tipping points?

While ENSO itself is a natural climate variability phenomenon, there have been investigations into whether its behavior could represent a climate tipping point. Some research suggests that global warming might increase the frequency and intensity of extreme El Niño events, potentially leading to a more permanent El Niño state, though this remains an area of active research and debate.

What is the 'atmospheric bridge' concept in ENSO teleconnections?

The 'atmospheric bridge' refers to the mechanism by which ENSO-related tropical convection and heat transfer generate Rossby waves. These waves then propagate poleward and eastward, influencing atmospheric circulation patterns and weather conditions in higher-latitude regions, thus connecting the tropical Pacific variations to global climate impacts.

How does ENSO influence the frequency of extreme weather events due to climate change?

Recent scholarship suggests that climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events. While the exact influence of climate change on ENSO's strength or duration is still debated, the consequences of ENSO, such as temperature anomalies and weather extremes, are observed to be increasing and associated with broader climate change impacts.

What are the potential long-term projections for ENSO under climate change?

Future trends in ENSO due to climate change are uncertain, as different climate models yield varying predictions. However, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report indicates it is very likely that precipitation variance related to ENSO will increase, and rainfall variability associated with ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant regional changes. It is also considered virtually certain that ENSO will remain the dominant mode of interannual variability in a warmer world.

What is the 'recharge oscillator' theory in relation to ENSO?

The 'recharge oscillator' theory is a conceptual model that attempts to explain the periodical variation of sea surface temperature and thermocline depth in ENSO. It suggests that internal oceanic processes, rather than solely external forcing, drive the oscillation between El Niño and La Niña states.

How does ENSO impact the distribution of fish populations off the coast of South America?

During El Niño events, the reduction in upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water along the west coast of South America significantly impacts fish populations. This leads to fish kills, particularly of species like anchoveta, which are crucial for the local fishing industry and the broader marine ecosystem, affecting everything from sardines to scallops.

What is the historical significance of the 1876-1877 El Niño event?

The El Niño event of 1876-1877 is notable for causing some of the deadliest famines of the 19th century. The extreme weather conditions it produced led to widespread crop failures, with the famine in northern China alone estimated to have caused the deaths of up to 13 million people.

How does ENSO influence the strength and frequency of the Tehuantepecer wind?

The Tehuantepecer wind, a strong gap wind in Mexico, is influenced by ENSO. Wind magnitude tends to be greater during El Niño years due to more frequent cold frontal incursions, which are associated with El Niño winters. These winds can accelerate through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, potentially enhancing thunderstorm activity when they interact with the Intertropical Convergence Zone.

What is the 'ocean dynamical thermostat' theory in relation to ENSO?

The 'ocean dynamical thermostat' theory proposes a physical mechanism that influences sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, potentially contributing to the regulation or modulation of ENSO cycles. It suggests that oceanic processes themselves can act to stabilize or destabilize ENSO conditions.

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Understanding ENSO

Global Climate Driver

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a significant climate phenomenon originating from variations in sea surface temperatures and winds across the tropical Pacific Ocean. It exerts a profound influence on weather patterns across much of the tropics and subtropics, with discernible teleconnections to higher-latitude regions.

The Oscillation Cycle

ENSO operates on an irregular cycle, typically occurring every two to seven years. It fluctuates between three distinct phases: the neutral phase, the warm phase known as El Niño, and the cold phase termed La Niña. These phases are characterized by specific oceanic and atmospheric conditions.

Temperature Anomalies

El Niño is defined by warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific. Conversely, La Niña is characterized by cooler-than-average temperatures in the same regions. These temperature shifts are the primary drivers of ENSO's global impacts.

Core Mechanisms

Bjerknes Feedback

Named after Jacob Bjerknes, this positive feedback loop describes how atmospheric changes influence sea temperatures, which in turn reinforce atmospheric shifts. Weaker trade winds lead to warm water accumulating in the east, warming the surface and further weakening the winds, creating a self-reinforcing cycle.

Walker Circulation

This is the atmospheric component of ENSO, an east-west overturning circulation in the Pacific. During El Niño, the normal pattern weakens or reverses, shifting rainfall patterns. During La Niña, it strengthens, intensifying rainfall in the west and dryness in the east.

Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)

The SOI measures the atmospheric component of ENSO by tracking the pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. A negative SOI indicates El Niño conditions (lower pressure in the east, higher in the west), while a positive SOI signifies La Niña conditions.

The ENSO Phases

Neutral Phase

Characterized by near-average sea surface temperatures and typical trade wind strength. Other climate patterns, like the North Atlantic Oscillation, may exert more influence during these transitional periods.

El Niño Phase

Marked by warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific. This leads to weakened trade winds, shifts in rainfall (droughts in the west, floods in the east), and impacts on global weather systems.

La Niña Phase

Defined by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific. This phase typically strengthens trade winds, leading to increased rainfall in the western Pacific and drier conditions in the east, often with opposite effects to El Niño.

Beyond the Basics: Variations

ENSO Modoki

Also known as Central Pacific (CP) ENSO or "dateline" ENSO, this variation features temperature anomalies centered in the central Pacific, rather than the eastern Pacific. Its impacts on weather patterns, such as hurricane frequency, can differ from the traditional Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO.

ENSO Modoki events, observed since the 1990s, present a distinct spatial pattern of sea surface temperature anomalies. While EP ENSO primarily affects the eastern Pacific coast, ENSO Modoki's central Pacific focus leads to different regional impacts, including altered rainfall patterns in Australia and shifts in Atlantic hurricane activity.

ENSO Costero

Also referred to as ENSO Oriental, this variation is characterized by temperature anomalies concentrated along the South American coastline. Its effects are often more localized, impacting rainfall and marine ecosystems primarily in Ecuador and Peru.

ENSO Costero events can occur independently or in conjunction with EP ENSO. Warm phases typically bring increased rainfall to coastal Ecuador and northern Peru, while cold phases can lead to droughts along the Peruvian coast. These events significantly affect local fisheries due to changes in nutrient upwelling.

Global Weather & Ecosystems

Temperature & Rainfall Shifts

ENSO significantly alters global temperature and precipitation patterns. El Niño events tend to cause global temperature spikes and can lead to droughts in regions like Australia and Indonesia, while causing floods in Peru and parts of South America. La Niña often has the opposite effect.

Tropical Cyclones

ENSO influences the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones. El Niño typically suppresses Atlantic hurricane activity due to increased wind shear but can enhance activity in the Pacific. La Niña generally favors more active Atlantic hurricane seasons.

Marine Ecosystems

The reduction in nutrient-rich upwelling during El Niño events severely impacts marine life. This phenomenon is strongly linked to coral bleaching events and significant declines in fish populations, such as anchovies off the coast of Peru, disrupting fisheries and coastal economies.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

ENSO-driven droughts can lead to widespread forest fires, particularly in tropical regions like the Amazon and Borneo. Changes in rainfall patterns also affect vegetation, increase seedling mortality, and can impact biodiversity by altering habitats and food availability.

Historical Context

Ancient Observations

Evidence suggests ENSO-like events have occurred for millennia. Indigenous cultures in Peru may have been impacted by these phenomena, and early explorers noted unusual rainfall patterns. The term "El Niño" itself originated from Peruvian sailors noticing a warm current around Christmas.

Scientific Discovery

The connection between Pacific sea temperatures and atmospheric pressure was first identified by Jacob Bjerknes in the mid-20th century. Gilbert Walker's earlier work on the "Southern Oscillation" laid the groundwork for understanding this coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon.

Jacob Bjerknes: Hypothesized the Bjerknes feedback mechanism linking ocean and atmosphere.
Gilbert Walker: Coined the term "Southern Oscillation" and identified its link to Indian droughts.
Charles Todd & Norman Lockyer: Noted correlations between droughts in India and Australia.

Major Events

Significant ENSO events, such as those in 1982-83 and 1997-98, have had devastating global impacts, including widespread droughts, floods, and severe economic consequences, drawing increased scientific attention to ENSO's role in climate variability.

Tracking ENSO

Key Monitoring Regions

Scientists monitor specific regions in the tropical Pacific, known as the "Niño regions" (Niño 1, 2, 3, 3.4, and 4), to track sea surface temperature anomalies. These regions help determine the phase and intensity of ENSO.

The Niño regions are defined by specific longitude and latitude boundaries across the equatorial Pacific:

Niño 1 & 2: Easternmost region, off the coast of Peru and Ecuador.
Niño 3: Central-eastern region, west of Niño 1 & 2.
Niño 3.4: A key region spanning the central Pacific, often used for ENSO monitoring.
Niño 4: Westernmost region, near the International Date Line.

Declaration Criteria

Different meteorological agencies use slightly varied criteria for declaring ENSO phases, typically involving thresholds for sea surface temperature anomalies and the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) over several consecutive months.

US Climate Prediction Center: Monitors Niño 3.4 region SST anomalies; El Niño declared if >0.5°C above average for several seasons.
Japan Meteorological Agency: Requires Niño 3 region SST anomalies >0.5°C for six consecutive months.
Australian Bureau of Meteorology: Considers SSTs, SOI, trade winds, and model forecasts.

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References

Barlow, M., H. Cullen, and B. Lyon, 2002: Drought in central and southwest Asia: La NiÃ±a, the warm pool, and Indian Ocean precipitation. J. Climate, 15, 697â700

Nazemosadat, M. J., and A. R. Ghasemi, 2004: Quantifying the ENSO-related shifts in the intensity and probability of drought and wet periods in Iran. J. Climate, 17, 4005â4018

La NiÃ±a In Australia Bureau of Meteorology. www.bom.gov.au

El NiÃ±o in Australia Bureau of Meteorology. www.bom.gov.au

Australian Climate Extremes â Fire, BOM. Retrieved 2 May 2007.

A full list of references for this article are available at the El Niño–Southern Oscillation Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence model and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It is based on data from Wikipedia and other sources, but may not be entirely comprehensive, up-to-date, or perfectly accurate. Scientific understanding of ENSO is continually evolving.

This is not a substitute for professional meteorological or climate science advice. Always consult official sources and qualified experts for critical decisions related to weather forecasting, climate impacts, or risk management. The creators of this page are not liable for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information provided.

The Pacific's Rhythm

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Understanding ENSO 🌊

🌐 Global Climate Driver

🔄 The Oscillation Cycle

🌡️ Temperature Anomalies

Core Mechanisms ⚙️

🔗 Bjerknes Feedback

🌬️ Walker Circulation

📊 Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)

The ENSO Phases ☀️❄️

neutral Neutral Phase

🔥 El Niño Phase

🥶 La Niña Phase

Beyond the Basics: Variations 🔬

❓ ENSO Modoki

📍 ENSO Costero

Global Weather & Ecosystems 🌍

🌡️ Temperature & Rainfall Shifts

🌪️ Tropical Cyclones

🐠 Marine Ecosystems

🌱 Terrestrial Ecosystems

Historical Context ⏳

📜 Ancient Observations

📈 Scientific Discovery

🌍 Major Events

Tracking ENSO 🛰️

📍 Key Monitoring Regions

📈 Declaration Criteria

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Important Considerations ⚠️

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Understanding ENSO

Global Climate Driver

The Oscillation Cycle

Temperature Anomalies

Core Mechanisms

Bjerknes Feedback

Walker Circulation

Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)

The ENSO Phases

Neutral Phase

El Niño Phase

La Niña Phase

Beyond the Basics: Variations

ENSO Modoki

ENSO Costero

Global Weather & Ecosystems

Temperature & Rainfall Shifts

Tropical Cyclones

Marine Ecosystems

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Historical Context

Ancient Observations

Scientific Discovery

Major Events

Tracking ENSO

Key Monitoring Regions

Declaration Criteria

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Important Considerations

AI-Generated Content Disclaimer