What is the primary function of an electoral college?

An electoral college is a body whose main task is to elect a candidate to a particular office. It is most commonly utilized in political systems as a constitutional body responsible for appointing a head of state or head of government, and sometimes an upper parliamentary chamber.

How are the members of an electoral college, known as electors, typically chosen?

Electors are typically chosen in one of two ways: they are either elected by the general population specifically for the purpose of casting votes in the election, which makes the overall process an indirect election, or they are selected by certain subregional entities or social organizations.

Under what circumstances is a body that elects officials not referred to as an electoral college?

A body is generally not called an electoral college if it is a standing constituent body, like a parliament, that is not solely convened for the specific task of election. Additionally, other types of appointing bodies, such as committees that select judges, are typically not classified as electoral colleges.

What is the foundational argument for the United States Electoral College's role in American federalism?

The Electoral College is considered fundamental to American federalism because it requires presidential candidates to appeal to voters across a broad range of states, rather than concentrating solely on highly populated areas that might dominate a popular vote election.

What argument, as suggested by Federalist No. 68, supports the need for broader qualifications for a president elected by the Electoral College?

Federalist No. 68, likely authored by Alexander Hamilton, argued that while superficial qualities might suffice for leadership within a single state, becoming president of the entire United States requires superior talents and merit to earn the confidence of the whole Union or a substantial portion thereof.

How does the Electoral College aim to protect less populated states in the United States?

One argument in favor of the Electoral College is that it prevents a situation where a majority concentrated in densely populated areas could disregard the interests of less populated rural states, thus avoiding a tyranny of the majority.

What has been the historical frequency of attempts to change or eliminate the U.S. Electoral College?

Since the year 1800, there have been numerous legislative efforts, exceeding 700 proposals, introduced in the U.S. Congress aimed at reforming or abolishing the Electoral College system.

What are the primary reasons cited by those who advocate for reforming or eliminating the U.S. Electoral College?

Advocates for reform or elimination argue that the Electoral College system does not ensure a direct democratic election, grants disproportionate power to less populous states, and allows for a candidate to win the presidency without winning the most individual votes nationwide.

Why have reform efforts for the U.S. Electoral College historically faced significant hurdles?

These reform proposals have consistently failed to achieve the required two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states, which is necessary to amend the Constitution. The inherent difficulty in amending the U.S. Constitution is also cited as a major obstacle.

How is the President of Pakistan elected?

The President of Pakistan is indirectly elected through the Electoral College of Pakistan, which comprises the members of both the Parliament of Pakistan and the Provincial Assemblies of Pakistan.

Who comprises the Electoral College responsible for electing the President of India?

The Indian Electoral College consists of the elected members of the Parliament of India, along with the elected members of the legislative assemblies of the various states and union territories of India.

What is the sole purpose of the German Bundesversammlung?

The German Bundesversammlung, or Federal Convention, exists exclusively for the purpose of electing the Federal President of Germany.

What are the two groups that constitute the German Bundesversammlung?

The Bundesversammlung is composed equally of members from the Bundestag, Germany's federal parliament, and representatives who are delegated by the state parliaments.

Who elects the Pope, and what is this electoral body called?

The Pope, who serves as the head of the Catholic Church, the Holy See, and Vatican City State, is elected by a papal conclave.

Which individuals are eligible to participate in a papal conclave?

Participation in a papal conclave is limited to all cardinals of the Catholic Church who are under the age of 80 at the time of the conclave.

How are senators in France indirectly elected?

Senators in France are indirectly elected by regional electoral colleges, known as colleges électoraux. These colleges are made up of approximately 150,000 delegates, referred to as grands électeurs, who are primarily appointed by municipal councillors.

What is the specific function of the States of Election in Guernsey?

The States of Election in Guernsey has a singular, defined purpose: to elect a new Jurat to serve on the Courts of Guernsey.

What was the common method for electing presidents in Latin American countries prior to 1840?

Before 1840, most presidents in Latin American nations were indirectly elected, with the selection process involving either legislative bodies or specific electoral colleges.

What role did the electoral college play in Argentina's presidential elections historically?

Argentina utilized an electoral college, established by its 1853 Constitution, for electing its president, vice president, and national senators. This system was largely in place until the constitutional amendment in 1994.

Can you describe periods of political instability in Argentina that led to deviations from the electoral college system?

Yes, Argentina experienced deviations due to political instability. For instance, the 1949 constitutional amendment introduced direct popular vote elections in 1951 and 1954. Following the Revolucion Libertadora, the electoral college was reinstated from the 1958 election until the 1994 amendment.

When was the electoral college finally replaced in Argentina, and what system took its place?

The electoral college in Argentina was finally replaced after the 1994 constitutional amendment. It was succeeded by a modified two-round system of direct elections by popular vote, which has been in use since the 1995 general election.

How was the president of Brazil elected during the military dictatorship period after 1964?

From 1964 onwards, during Brazil's military dictatorship, the president was selected by an electoral college composed of senators, deputies, state deputies, and lawmakers from various cities.

What electoral system replaced the electoral college in Brazil following the end of the military dictatorship?

After the military dictatorship concluded and a new constitution was enacted in 1988, Brazil transitioned back to democracy and replaced the electoral college with a two-round system of direct election by popular vote, first implemented in the 1989 presidential election.

When did Colombia discontinue the use of an electoral college?

Colombia eliminated its electoral college system in the year 1910.

How did Paraguay elect its president under the 1870 Constitution?

Under the provisions of the 1870 Constitution, Paraguay employed an electoral college for the election of its president.

What electoral system replaced the electoral college in Paraguay?

The electoral college in Paraguay was replaced by direct elections decided by popular vote, a system that has been in place since 1943, following the adoption of a new constitution in 1940.

For how long did Chile utilize an electoral college for its presidential elections?

Chile's 1828 Constitution established an electoral college system for presidential elections, which remained in use from the 1829 election through the 1920 election.

When did Chile transition from an electoral college to direct popular vote for presidential elections?

Chile amended its constitution in 1925, which led to the replacement of the electoral college with direct elections determined by popular vote, a system that has been in effect since the 1925 presidential election.

How were regional councillors in Chile elected prior to 2009?

Until 2009, regional councillors in Chile were elected through provincial electoral colleges. These colleges were formed by communal councillors from local governments within each province.

What was the function of electoral colleges in Uruguay's departments before 1918?

Before 1918, Uruguay had an electoral college in each department, consisting of 15 members. Their role was to elect the senator who would represent that specific department in the upper chamber of the national parliament.

What was a common trend in European countries regarding electoral colleges for leadership selection in the 19th and 20th centuries?

Many European nations that previously used electoral colleges for electing heads of state or government transitioned to systems of direct popular election during the 19th and 20th centuries as part of their democratization processes.

How did Norway historically elect members to its Storting?

From 1814 to 1905, Norway utilized regional electoral colleges to elect legislators to its Storting (parliament). Following this period, the country shifted to direct elections.

How was the President of France elected during the initial phase of the Fifth Republic?

The very first presidential election of the French Fifth Republic, which resulted in the election of Charles de Gaulle, was the only instance where the president was determined by an electoral college.

What event led to the abolition of the electoral college for French presidential elections?

The electoral college system for French presidential elections was abolished following a referendum held in 1962. Subsequently, direct elections by popular vote, using a two-round system, were implemented starting in 1965.

Describe Finland's use of an electoral college for presidential elections.

Finland employed an electoral college for its presidential elections from 1925 until 1988. There were specific exceptions, including instances where the parliament elected the president or terms were extended by law.

How did Finland's presidential election process evolve after 1988?

Direct presidential elections were introduced in Finland in 1988. If no candidate secured a majority of the popular vote, the electoral college would then convene to elect the president. This was further modified starting in 1994, with a second round of popular voting used if necessary.

How was the President of the Republic elected in Spain during the Second Republic period (1931-1939)?

During Spain's Second Republic, the president was elected by an electoral college composed of members of the Parliament and an equal number of democratically elected members known as compromisarios.

What body was historically responsible for electing the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire?

The Holy Roman Empire utilized an electoral college, specifically known as the Electoral College of the Holy Roman Empire, to choose its ruler.

How was the President of the Republic of China (Taiwan) elected between 1948 and 1996?

From 1948 until 1996, the President of the Republic of China (Taiwan) was elected by the National Assembly. This body also possessed the authority to amend the Constitution. Democratization in 1996 led to direct presidential elections.

How was the president of South Korea elected during the periods of the Fourth and Fifth Republics (1972-1981)?

During South Korea's dictatorships, specifically the Fourth and Fifth Republics from 1972 to 1981, the president was elected by an electoral college known as the National Conference for Unification.

What additional legislative role did the National Conference for Unification play in South Korea during the Fourth Republic?

During the Fourth Republic in South Korea, the National Conference for Unification also nominally elected one-third of the members of the National Assembly, although these members were effectively appointed by the president in practice.

Describe the method used to appoint the state president in Apartheid-era South Africa from 1961 to 1983.

Between 1961 and 1983, the state president of South Africa was appointed by a joint session of all members of the House of Assembly and the Senate.

What change occurred in the South African presidential election process following the adoption of the 1983 Constitution?

After the 1983 Constitution, a new electoral college was established. This college comprised designated members from the House of Assembly (50), the House of Representatives (25), and the House of Delegates (13). This system ceased with the end of apartheid, and the South African Parliament now elects the president.

What related concept is mentioned in the 'See also' section of the article?

The article includes 'Representative democracy' in its 'See also' section, linking the concept of electoral colleges to broader forms of democratic governance.

What is the core argument against the U.S. Electoral College regarding election outcomes?

A primary criticism is that the Electoral College allows a candidate to win the presidency without securing the majority of the popular vote nationwide, which is seen by critics as undemocratic.

What historical examples illustrate the transition from electoral colleges to direct elections in Europe?

Norway shifted from regional electoral colleges to direct elections for its Storting between 1814 and 1905. France replaced its electoral college for presidential elections with direct popular vote after a 1962 referendum, and Finland introduced direct presidential elections in 1988 after using an electoral college since 1925.

What is the significance of Federalist No. 68 in the context of the U.S. Electoral College?

Federalist No. 68 is cited as an argument in favor of the Electoral College, suggesting that the office of President requires broader national appeal and a different caliber of merit than might be sufficient to win favor in a single state, thus justifying an indirect election mechanism.

How does the structure of the German Bundesversammlung reflect federal principles?

The German Bundesversammlung reflects federal principles by being composed equally of representatives from the federal legislative body (Bundestag) and delegates from the state parliaments, ensuring both federal and state representation in the election of the Federal President.

What is the role of regional councils in the election of the President of Italy?

The regional councils of Italy's 20 regions play a role by appointing 58 special electors who, along with the members of the Italian Parliament in joint session, form the electoral college for the presidential election.

Electoral College Wiki: The Electoral College: Mechanisms of Indirect Governance

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What is an Electoral College?

Core Function

An electoral college is fundamentally a deliberative body constituted for the specific purpose of electing a candidate to a particular office. While the term is most commonly associated with political systems, its defining characteristic is the indirect nature of the election process it facilitates. The members of this college, known as electors, are typically chosen either by the general populace for this express purpose, thereby creating an indirect election, or they are appointed by constituent sub-regional entities or specific social organizations.

Distinguishing Features

It is important to differentiate an electoral college from other governmental bodies. For instance, when a standing legislature, such as a parliament, elects or appoints officials (as seen in parliamentary systems), this process is not typically referred to as the function of an electoral college. Similarly, other appointing bodies, like committees responsible for judicial appointments in various countries, do not fall under the definition of an electoral college.

Scope of Application

In democratic frameworks, electoral colleges are frequently employed as constitutional bodies responsible for appointing the head of state or head of government. In some instances, they may also play a role in selecting members of an upper parliamentary chamber. The structure and composition of these colleges can vary significantly, reflecting the unique constitutional designs of different nations.

Contemporary Examples

United States

The United States Electoral College stands as a unique contemporary example where an executive president, who serves as both head of state and government, is indirectly elected. This system is often cited as a cornerstone of American federalism, intended to ensure candidates appeal to a broad range of states rather than solely focusing on densely populated areas. Proponents argue it prevents a "tyranny of the majority" by giving less populated states a voice. However, it faces significant criticism for not being a direct democratic election and for potentially allowing a candidate to win the presidency without securing the most popular votes.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, the President is indirectly elected through an Electoral College comprising members of both the Parliament of Pakistan and the Provincial Assemblies. This structure ensures representation from both the national legislative body and the regional governments in the selection of the head of state.

India

The President of India is similarly chosen via an Electoral College. This body is constituted by the elected members of the Parliament of India, alongside the legislative assemblies of the various states and union territories, reflecting a broad base of elected representatives across the nation.

Germany

Germany utilizes a Federal Convention, known as the Bundesversammlung, solely for the election of the Federal President. This convention is composed equally of members from the Bundestag (the federal parliament) and delegates appointed by the state parliaments, ensuring a balance between federal and state representation.

Italy

The President of Italy is elected by a specialized electoral college. This body includes all members of both chambers of the Italian Parliament, meeting in joint session, augmented by 58 special electors designated by the regional councils of Italy's 20 regions, thereby incorporating regional perspectives.

Holy See

The election of the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church and the Holy See, occurs through a Papal Conclave. This unique electoral college consists of all cardinals under the age of 80, who gather to elect their spiritual leader.

France

While the President of France is directly elected, the Senate is indirectly chosen by electoral colleges within the French regions. These colleges are formed by approximately 150,000 delegates, primarily appointed by municipal councillors, reflecting a layered system of representation.

Guernsey

In Guernsey, the States of Election serves a singular, critical purpose: to elect a new Jurat to the island's Courts. This demonstrates a highly specialized application of the electoral college principle.

Historical Context

Americas: A Shifting Landscape

Historically, many nations in the Americas utilized electoral colleges. Prior to 1840, most Latin American presidents were indirectly elected by legislatures or electoral colleges. Argentina maintained its electoral college system for presidential and senatorial elections for over a century, established by its 1853 Constitution, before transitioning to direct elections following the 1994 constitutional amendment. Brazil employed an electoral college during its republic (1889-1964) and again under military rule (1964-1989), eventually adopting direct elections. Colombia, Paraguay, and Chile also utilized electoral colleges for presidential elections at various points before transitioning to direct popular vote systems in the 20th century. Uruguay used departmental electoral colleges to elect senators until 1918.

Europe: Evolution of Election Methods

In Europe, Norway used regional electoral colleges to elect members of the Storting from 1814 to 1905. France's presidential elections were conducted by the legislature from 1875 to 1954, with the first election of the Fifth Republic in 1958 utilizing an electoral college before direct popular vote was established. Finland employed an electoral college for its president from 1925 to 1988, with subsequent reforms leading to direct elections. Spain's Second Republic (1931-1939) featured a president elected by an electoral college comprising parliament members and appointed delegates. Historically, the Holy Roman Empire also utilized an electoral college to select its ruler.

Asia and Africa: Transitional Systems

In Asia, the Republic of China (Taiwan) elected its President via the National Assembly from 1948 until democratization in 1996 led to direct elections. In Africa, Apartheid-era South Africa (1961-1983) appointed its State President through parliamentary bodies, later evolving to a tripartite parliamentary electoral college before transitioning to parliamentary election post-apartheid. These examples illustrate a global trend towards direct popular election where democratic institutions have evolved.

Critiques and Reform Debates

Challenges to the US System

The United States Electoral College has been the subject of extensive debate and numerous reform proposals throughout its history, with over 700 amendments introduced in Congress since 1800. Critics argue that the system fundamentally deviates from direct democratic principles, as it allows for the possibility of a candidate winning the presidency without securing the majority of the popular vote. Furthermore, it grants disproportionate influence to less populated states, potentially marginalizing the electoral power of larger states and their populations.

Constitutional Hurdles

The path to reforming or abolishing the Electoral College in the U.S. is significantly obstructed by the constitutional amendment process, which requires a two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. Scholars like Ziblatt and Levitsky highlight the inherent difficulty of amending the U.S. Constitution, suggesting it is among the most rigid in the world, which has historically stalled reform efforts and contributed to the system's persistence despite ongoing criticism.

Scholarly References

Source Citations

The following scholarly and journalistic sources underpin the information presented on this page:

Ziblatt, Daniel; Levitsky, Steven (5 September 2023). "How American Democracy Fell So Far Behind". The Atlantic.
Collin, Richard Oliver; Martin, Pamela L. (1 January 2012). An Introduction to World Politics: Conflict and Consensus on a Small Planet. Rowman & Littlefield.
Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel (2023). Tyranny of the Minority: why American democracy reached the breaking point (First ed.). New York: Crown.
Sid Salter, guest columnist for the Clarion Ledger (Jackson, MS), 2 December 2020. "Efforts to abolish the Electoral College will dilute the influence of nation’s rural states".
Bolotnikova, Marina N. (6 July 2020). "Why Do We Still Have the Electoral College?". Harvard Magazine.
Neale, Thomas H.; Nolan, Andrew (28 October 2019). The National Popular Vote (NPV) Initiative: Direct Election of the President by Interstate Compact (Report). Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service.
Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel (2023). "Chapter 7". Tyranny of the Minority: why American democracy reached the breaking point (First ed.). New York: Crown.
Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel (2023). Tyranny of the Minority: why American democracy reached the breaking point (First ed.). New York: Crown.
The Constitution of Argentina of 1853, 32nd to 63rd Articles.
Ziblatt, Daniel; Levitsky, Steven (5 September 2023). "How American Democracy Fell So Far Behind". The Atlantic.
Ley 19.097 – Modifica la constitucion politica de la republica en materia de gobiernos regionales y administracion comunal. Ley Chile – National Congress of Chile Library (in Spanish).
Isotalus, Pekka (2001). "Presidential Campaigning in Finland and Americanization". World Communication. 30 (2).
Kim, Sunhyuk (2010). "Collaborative Governance in South Korea: Citizen Participation in Policy Making and Welfare Service Provision". Asian Perspective. 34 (3).
Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, 1961.
Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, 1983.

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References

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The Electoral College: Mechanisms of Indirect Governance

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What is an Electoral College? ℹ️

🗳️ Core Function

⚖️ Distinguishing Features

🏛️ Scope of Application

Contemporary Examples 🌍

🇺🇸 United States

🇵🇰 Pakistan

🇮🇳 India

🇩🇪 Germany

🇮🇹 Italy

🇻🇦 Holy See

🇫🇷 France

🇬🇬 Guernsey

Historical Context ⏳

🌎 Americas: A Shifting Landscape

🇪🇺 Europe: Evolution of Election Methods

🌏 Asia and Africa: Transitional Systems

Critiques and Reform Debates 🤔

📜 Challenges to the US System

⚙️ Constitutional Hurdles

Scholarly References 📚

📖 Source Citations

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What is an Electoral College?

Core Function

Distinguishing Features

Scope of Application

Contemporary Examples

United States

Pakistan

India

Germany

Italy

Holy See

France

Guernsey

Historical Context

Americas: A Shifting Landscape

Europe: Evolution of Election Methods

Asia and Africa: Transitional Systems

Critiques and Reform Debates

Challenges to the US System

Constitutional Hurdles

Scholarly References

Source Citations

Teacher's Corner

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Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice