What is the definition of extreme weather?

Extreme weather refers to unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather events that occur at the extremes of a location's historical weather distribution. These events are considered rare for a particular place and time of year, typically falling outside the 10th or 90th percentile of observed probability.

How does the World Meteorological Organization define 'severe weather' in relation to extreme weather?

The World Meteorological Organization defines 'severe weather' as any weather aspect that poses risks to life, property, or necessitates intervention from authorities. Therefore, severe weather is considered a specific category or type of extreme weather.

What are the main types of extreme weather events mentioned in the source material?

The main types of extreme weather events include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Tornadoes are also explicitly mentioned as an example of an extreme weather event.

What role does natural climate variability play in the occurrence of extreme weather?

Natural climate variability, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), impacts weather patterns globally and can contribute to extreme weather events. While a single extreme event cannot be attributed to one cause, these natural phenomena, when combined with human-induced warming, can lead to record-breaking events.

How might climate change influence extreme weather events?

Climate change is projected to make some extreme weather events more frequent and more intense, particularly heat waves and cold waves. Climate models indicate that rising global temperatures could worsen extreme weather events worldwide.

What are some of the broad impacts of extreme weather on human society and ecosystems?

Extreme weather has serious impacts, including the loss of human lives, damage to infrastructure, and destruction of ecosystems. It also incurs significant economic costs and can lead to natural hazards like floods and landslides.

What is a heat wave, and how do its definitions vary?

A heat wave is a period characterized by abnormally high temperatures and heat index. Definitions of a heat wave can vary due to the natural temperature differences across different geographic locations.

Why are heat waves considered one of the less known forms of extreme weather?

Heat waves are often less known compared to other severe weather forms like hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms because they are not as visibly dramatic or destructive in their immediate manifestation.

What are the potential damages and impacts of severely hot weather on populations and crops?

Severely hot weather can cause dehydration or hyperthermia, heat cramps, heat expansion, and heat stroke in human populations. For crops, dried soils become more susceptible to erosion, reducing agricultural land, and outbreaks of wildfires increase due to dry vegetation. Marine populations can suffer from the evaporation of water bodies, which decreases habitat size and nutrient availability, and livestock populations may also decline.

How do heat waves affect air quality and human mortality?

During excessive heat, plants close their leaf pores (stomata) to conserve water, which in turn reduces their absorption capabilities, leaving more pollution and ozone in the air. This increased air pollution can lead to higher mortality in the population, as seen in the 2006 UK heatwave, which was estimated to have cost 460 lives, and the 2003 European heatwaves, which caused an estimated 30,000 excess deaths.

What economic and infrastructural issues can arise during heat waves?

Power outages can occur during heat waves due to the increased demand for electricity, primarily for air conditioning use. Additionally, the urban heat island effect can significantly increase temperatures, especially overnight, in densely populated areas.

What was the impact of the 2003 European heat wave?

The 2003 European heat wave is estimated to have caused 30,000 excess deaths due to heat stress and air pollution. This event is referenced by an image showing temperature anomalies across Europe during that period.

What is a cold wave, according to the U.S. National Weather Service?

The U.S. National Weather Service defines a cold wave as a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period that necessitates substantially increased protection for agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The specific criteria for a cold wave, including the rate and minimum temperature fall, depend on the geographical region and time of year.

How do cold waves form and where can they occur?

Cold waves are generally capable of occurring in any geological location and are formed by large cool air masses that accumulate over certain regions, driven by movements of air streams.

What are the impacts of cold waves on animal populations and agriculture?

Cold waves can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife, as exposure to cold requires greater caloric intake. If accompanied by heavy snow, grazing animals may be unable to access food and water, leading to hypothermia or starvation, and farmers often incur considerable costs to purchase fodder for livestock. Unexpected freezes during the growing season can also kill plants, resulting in crop failure and potentially famines.

What infrastructural and safety hazards are associated with extreme winter cold?

Extreme winter cold often causes poorly insulated water pipes to freeze and rupture due to water expansion, leading to property damage. Fires become more hazardous because water mains may break and water supplies can become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult.

What was the 'Year Without a Summer' and what caused it?

The 'Year Without a Summer' in 1816 was an extreme cold wave event where numerous crops failed during freakish summer cold snaps. This was caused by volcanic eruptions that reduced incoming sunlight, leading to global cooling.

Is there a link between climate change and cold waves?

Some studies suggest a link between rapidly warming Arctic temperatures and the vanishing cryosphere to extreme cold weather in mid-latitudes, such as the February 2021 North American cold wave. However, conclusions linking climate change directly to cold waves are still considered controversial by some, while others project an overall decline in the intensity and frequency of extreme cold spells with global warming.

What does a 2023 study indicate about the future of strong and weak winter extreme cold events?

A 2023 study found that weak extreme cold events (ECEs) are projected to significantly decrease in frequency, projection area, and total area over the Northern Hemisphere with global warming. In contrast, the frequency, projection area, and total area of strong ECEs show no significant significant trend globally, though they are increasing in Siberia and Canada.

How does global warming contribute to more severe heavy rainfall events?

Global warming leads to an increase in the amount of water vapor in Earth's atmosphere. Warmer air can hold more moisture due to increased kinetic energy of water molecules, which results in heavy rainfall events becoming more severe as precipitation occurs at a greater rate.

What is a tropical cyclone, and what are its key characteristics?

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure area, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. They typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water and derive energy from the evaporation and condensation of water from the ocean surface.

What are the different names for tropical cyclones based on their location and strength?

Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone can be called a hurricane (in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean), a typhoon (in the northwestern Pacific Ocean), a tropical storm, a cyclonic storm, a tropical depression, or simply a cyclone (in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific).

How does the energy source of tropical cyclones differ from mid-latitude cyclonic storms?

Tropical cyclones are fueled by the evaporation of water from warm ocean surfaces, which then condenses into clouds and rain. Mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such such as nor'easters and European windstorms, are primarily powered by horizontal temperature contrasts rather than latent heat from condensation.

Why do tropical cyclones rarely form near the equator?

Tropical cyclones rarely form within 5 degrees of the equator because their strong rotating winds are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation, which is weakest at the equator.

What factors contribute to the rarity of tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic?

South Atlantic tropical cyclones are very rare due to consistently strong wind shear, which disrupts storm formation, and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone, which is an area where trade winds converge and promote convection.

How can shifts in rainfall patterns lead to droughts?

A shift in rainfall patterns can result in greater amounts of precipitation in one area while another experiences much hotter, drier conditions, which can lead to drought. An increase in temperatures also increases evaporation from the Earth's surface, meaning that more precipitation globally does not necessarily translate to universally wetter conditions or an increase in drinking water availability.

What is the primary focus of contemporary research in extreme weather attribution?

Contemporary research in extreme weather attribution has shifted from predicting specific events to focusing on attributing the causes of trends in these events. This research particularly investigates the connection between climate change and other causal factors for extreme weather.

What was a key recommendation from the 2016 report by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine regarding attribution research?

The 2016 report recommended investing in improved shared practices across the field of attribution research and enhancing the connection between research outcomes and weather forecasting to better understand and predict extreme events.

What is the role of climate models in studying extreme weather and climate change?

Climate models are vital for studying complex processes like climate change and ocean acidification by providing predictions about the future characteristics of the atmosphere, oceans, and Earth, using modern-day data. They are useful for simulating how the atmosphere may behave over time and identifying steps for mitigating negative changes, although they are approximations and weather events are complex with many atmospheric variables.

What natural factors influence Earth's atmosphere and contribute to climate variability?

The Earth's atmosphere is a complex and dynamic system influenced by several natural factors, including the planet's natural tilt and orbit, the absorption or reflection of solar radiation, the movement of air masses, and the water cycle.

How does the melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica potentially affect global climate systems?

Simulations indicate that the melting of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica could affect overall sea level and sea temperature. This meltwater could disrupt the thermohaline circulation, which is responsible for moving seawater and distributing heat globally, potentially leading to increased extreme temperatures and more frequent storms in regions like Europe.

What trend has been observed in climate-related events between 1980 and 2019?

There was a significant increase in climate-related events reported, with approximately 6,681 events during 2000–2019, compared to 3,656 events during 1980–1999. These events include floods, storms, droughts, landslides, extreme temperatures, and wildfires, excluding geophysical events.

What does the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) project regarding the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events?

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021) projects progressively large increases in both the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, corresponding to increasing degrees of global warming. For example, it anticipates more than a 5°C increase in extreme heat events for a 4°C global average temperature increase.

According to Climate Central's review, how has climate change affected various types of extreme weather events?

Climate Central's review of almost 750 climate attribution studies found that climate change made nearly all studied extreme weather event types substantially more likely or more severe. Cold, snow, and ice events were noted as an exception to this trend.

What specific changes are projected for tropical cyclones due to climate change?

Climate change is expected to intensify rainfall and wind speed in tropical cyclones, increase the frequency of very intense storms, and cause a poleward extension of where these cyclones reach their maximum intensity. This is because warming ocean temperatures provide more warm, moist air, which is the fuel for tropical cyclones.

What trends have been observed in the intensity of tropical cyclones globally between 1979 and 2017?

Between 1979 and 2017, there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical cyclones reaching Category 3 and higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale. This trend was most pronounced in the north Indian Ocean, North Atlantic, and Southern Indian Ocean, with the Arabian Sea experiencing significant increases in frequency, duration, and intensity of cyclones.

What did the NOAA predict in 2020 regarding the frequency and intensity of tropical storms and Atlantic hurricanes in the 21st Century?

In 2020, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) predicted that over the 21st Century, the frequency of tropical storms and Atlantic hurricanes would decline by 25 percent, while their maximum intensity would rise by 5 percent.

What factors have contributed to the increased cost of billion-dollar Atlantic hurricanes?

The number of $1 billion Atlantic hurricanes almost doubled from the 1980s to the 2010s, with inflation-adjusted costs increasing more than elevenfold. These increases are attributed to both climate change and the growing number of people moving to coastal areas.

How do urban areas contribute to extreme or unusual weather events, including urban heat islands?

More urban areas can contribute to extreme weather. Tall structures alter wind patterns, pushing warmer air upwards and inducing convection, which can create thunderstorms and increased precipitation. Impervious surfaces in cities absorb solar energy, and along with pollution and heat from cars, contribute to the urban heat island effect, causing drastic temperature increases.

What are the economic challenges faced by economists in the context of record-breaking extreme weather events?

In the face of record-breaking extreme weather events, climate change adaptation efforts are insufficient, and economists are confronted with inflation, the cost-of-living crisis, and general economic uncertainty.

What were the estimated annual economic losses from weather-related disasters since 1980, according to the IPCC?

The IPCC estimated in 2011 that annual losses from weather-related disasters since 1980 have ranged from a few billion to over US$200 billion, with the highest economic losses recorded in 2005, the year Hurricane Katrina occurred.

Why is it difficult to accurately value the total losses from global weather-related disasters?

The global weather-related disaster losses, which include human lives, cultural heritage, and ecosystem services, are difficult to accurately value and monetize. Consequently, these significant costs are often poorly reflected in official estimates of losses.

What did the World Economic Forum Global Risks Perception Survey 2023–2024 (GRPS) identify as a top risk?

The World Economic Forum Global Risks Perception Survey 2023–2024 (GRPS) found that 66 percent of respondents identified extreme weather as a top risk, particularly after the 2023 heat waves. The survey also noted differing risk management priorities, with younger respondents focusing on environmental risks in the short-term, and the private sector prioritizing them long-term.

What trend has been observed in global deaths from natural disasters since the 1920s?

According to the International Disaster Database, the death toll from natural disasters has declined by over 90 percent since the 1920s. This occurred despite a quadrupling of the total human population on Earth and a 1.3°C rise in global temperatures, with 5.4 million deaths in the 1920s compared to just 400,000 in the 2010s.

Can you provide examples of the dramatic decline in deaths from extreme weather events in South Asia?

In South Asia, there has been a dramatic decline in deaths from extreme weather events. For instance, a tropical cyclone in Bangladesh in 1991 killed 135,000 people, and a 1970 cyclone killed 300,000. In contrast, the similarly-sized Cyclone Amphan, which struck India and Bangladesh in 2020, resulted in only 120 total deaths.

What did Munich Re announce regarding global natural disaster deaths for the first half of 2020?

On July 23, 2020, Munich Re announced that the 2,900 total global deaths from natural disasters during the first half of 2020 represented a record-low figure, significantly lower than the average figures for both the preceding 30 and 10 years.

What did a 2021 study reveal about global mortality attributed to extreme temperatures?

A 2021 study found that 9.4% of global deaths between 2000 and 2019, amounting to approximately 5 million annually, could be attributed to extreme temperatures. Cold-related deaths constituted the larger share of these fatalities but were decreasing, while heat-related deaths made up about 0.91% and were increasing.

What were the findings of a 2023 study on excess mortality in European urban areas due to extreme temperatures?

A 2023 study published in *The Lancet Planetary Health* estimated that between 2000 and 2019, extreme cold events contributed to over 200,000 excess deaths, and extreme heat events contributed to over 20,000 excess deaths in European urban areas.

What is the significance of the image showing a tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma, on May 3, 1999?

The image depicts a tornado near Anadarko, Oklahoma, on May 3, 1999, and serves as an example of an extreme weather event, highlighting the destructive power of such phenomena.

How is the intensity of extreme weather events typically judged or selected for study?

One method for judging extreme weather events involves selecting those that exceed a certain threshold of intensity, frequency, or impact. This threshold might be defined by events lying above a specific percentile or beyond a certain number of standard deviations from the average, as illustrated in a NOAA chart from 2016.

Extreme Weather Wiki: Climatic Extremes: Navigating the Dynamics of Earth's Most Intense Weather

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Defining Extreme Weather

Beyond the Norm

Extreme weather refers to meteorological events that fall outside the historical distribution for a given area, representing the most unusual or severe conditions observed in the past.^[3] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines an extreme weather event as one that is rare at a particular place and time of year, typically rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile of observed probability distributions.^[3]

Extreme vs. Severe

While often used interchangeably, a distinction exists between "extreme weather" and "severe weather." The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) defines severe weather as any weather phenomenon that poses risks to life, property, or necessitates intervention by authorities.^[4] Thus, severe weather constitutes a specific subset of extreme weather events, characterized by its immediate hazardous implications.

Diverse Manifestations

The spectrum of extreme weather is broad, encompassing phenomena such as intense precipitation, prolonged droughts, periods of excessive heat (heat waves), and severe cold spells (cold waves). It also includes powerful storm systems like tornadoes and tropical cyclones, each presenting unique challenges and impacts on both natural and human systems.^[5]

Key Extreme Weather Types

Heat Waves

Heat waves are characterized by abnormally high temperatures and heat index values, with specific definitions varying geographically. These events are often accompanied by high humidity, though catastrophically dry heat waves also occur.^[8] Less visible than other severe weather, heat waves can cause widespread dehydration, hyperthermia, crop failures, increased wildfires, and elevated air pollution, leading to significant mortality and power outages due to increased demand for cooling.^[10]

Human Health: Dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and increased mortality, especially in vulnerable populations.
Agriculture: Damage to crops and livestock due to heat stress and water scarcity.
Environment: Increased frequency of wildfires due to dry vegetation, devastating effects on marine populations from water body evaporation.
Infrastructure: Power outages from increased electricity demand (e.g., air conditioning), heat expansion damage.
Air Quality: Plants close stomata to conserve water, reducing pollution absorption and increasing ground-level ozone.

Historical events, such as the 2003 European heat wave, resulted in an estimated 30,000 excess deaths.^[12]

Cold Waves

A cold wave is marked by a rapid and substantial drop in temperature over a 24-hour period, necessitating enhanced protection for various sectors. Its specific criteria depend on the region and time of year.^[16] These events are formed by large, cool air masses and can lead to significant losses in livestock and wildlife due to hypothermia and starvation. They also pose risks to human health, causing frostbite and internal organ damage, and can result in property damage from frozen and ruptured water pipes.^[8]

Biological Impact: Death and injury to livestock and wildlife, increased caloric needs for all animals.
Human Impact: Frostbite, potential loss of limbs or organ damage from prolonged exposure.
Infrastructure: Freezing and rupturing of poorly insulated water pipes, making firefighting more challenging due to unreliable water supplies.
Agriculture: Crop failures from unexpected freezes during vulnerable growth stages, leading to historical famines (e.g., the "Year Without a Summer" in 1816).

Heavy Rain & Droughts

Global warming contributes to more severe heavy rainfall events as warmer air can hold more moisture, leading to increased precipitation rates.^[22] Conversely, shifts in rainfall patterns can also result in prolonged periods of hotter, drier conditions, culminating in droughts. While increased precipitation might seem beneficial, the rise in global temperatures also enhances evaporation, meaning more rainfall does not necessarily translate to universally wetter conditions or an increase in available drinking water.^[26]

Underlying Causes

Natural Variability

Earth's climate system inherently possesses a degree of natural variability, influencing weather patterns through factors such as the planet's tilt and orbit, solar radiation absorption, air mass movements, and the water cycle. Phenomena like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) significantly impact regional temperatures and precipitation.^[29] Record-breaking extreme weather events often arise when these natural climate patterns align with human-induced warming, amplifying their effects.^[29]

Anthropogenic Influence

Human activities play a critical role in exacerbating the impacts of extreme weather. Urban planning, for instance, often increases impervious surfaces like roads and sidewalks, reducing natural water absorption and intensifying urban flooding.^[53] The destruction of wetlands, which naturally absorb water, diminishes a region's resilience to floods and storm surges. Furthermore, urban areas contribute to "urban heat islands" through heat absorption by impervious surfaces, pollution, and heat released from vehicles, leading to significantly higher local temperatures.^[56]

Climate Change

A growing body of research indicates a strong connection between climate change and the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Rising global temperatures, particularly in the Arctic, are linked to shifts in mid-latitude weather patterns.^[32] Melting ice sheets contribute to sea-level rise and can disrupt thermohaline circulation, potentially leading to more frequent storms and temperature extremes in regions like Europe.^[37] The IPCC's Sixth Assessment Report projects substantial increases in both the frequency and intensity of extreme heat events with continued global warming.^[30]

Tropical Cyclones & Climate

Formation & Dynamics

Tropical cyclones are rapidly rotating storm systems characterized by a low-pressure center, strong winds, and heavy rainfall. Known as hurricanes in the Atlantic and northeastern Pacific, and typhoons in the northwestern Pacific, these storms derive their immense energy from the evaporation of warm ocean water, which then condenses into clouds and rain as moist air rises.^[24] This mechanism distinguishes them from mid-latitude cyclonic storms, which are primarily driven by horizontal temperature contrasts.

Intensification Trends

Climate change is influencing tropical cyclones in several critical ways. It is leading to an intensification of rainfall and wind speeds, an increase in the frequency of very intense storms (Category 3 and higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale), and a poleward extension of where these cyclones reach their maximum intensity.^[44] Warmer ocean temperatures provide more "fuel" for these systems, contributing to their increased power.^[46]

North Indian Ocean: Between 1982 and 2019, the Arabian Sea experienced a 52% increase in cyclones and a 150% increase in very severe cyclones, with total duration increasing by 80% and 260% respectively.^[47]
Atlantic Region: The 20-year average of annual Category 4 and 5 hurricanes has approximately doubled since 2000.^[41]
Global Projections: With a 2°C warming, a 13% greater percentage of tropical cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength.^[44]

Economic & Social Costs

The increasing intensity and frequency of tropical cyclones have profound economic and social consequences. The number of billion-dollar Atlantic hurricanes nearly doubled from the 1980s to the 2010s, with inflation-adjusted costs increasing more than elevenfold.^[42] Rapidly intensifying cyclones are particularly challenging to forecast, posing additional risks to coastal communities and demanding more robust infrastructure and disaster preparedness strategies.

Societal & Economic Impacts

Economic Burden

Extreme weather events impose substantial economic costs. The IPCC estimated annual losses since 1980 ranging from a few billion to over US$200 billion, with 2005 (the year of Hurricane Katrina) marking one of the highest.^[60] These figures often underestimate the true cost, as non-monetary losses such as human lives, cultural heritage, and ecosystem services are difficult to quantify and monetize.^[62]

The World Economic Forum's Global Risks Perception Survey 2023–2024 identified extreme weather as a top risk, particularly after the 2023 heat waves. Perceptions of risk management priorities vary:

Younger respondents: Prioritize environmental risks, including extreme weather, in the short-term.
Private sector respondents: Tend to prioritize environmental risks as long-term concerns.^[64]

Human Casualties

Despite a quadrupling of the global population and a 1.3°C rise in temperatures since the 1920s, the death toll from natural disasters has declined by over 90%.^[65] This remarkable improvement is evident in regions like South Asia, where cyclones that once killed hundreds of thousands now result in significantly fewer fatalities due to improved warning systems and infrastructure.^[66] However, extreme temperatures still contribute to millions of deaths annually, with cold-related deaths historically outnumbering heat-related ones, though heat-related mortality is increasing.^[69]

Exacerbating Factors

Human activities often amplify the destructive potential of extreme weather. Poor urban planning, characterized by extensive impervious surfaces, prevents natural water absorption, intensifying urban flooding. The destruction of wetlands, which serve as natural flood buffers, further exacerbates flood impacts and allows storm surges to penetrate deeper inland.^[54] Building residential areas in floodplains or below sea level also places populations at heightened risk during extreme precipitation events.

Attribution & Future Projections

Attribution Science

Contemporary research in extreme weather focuses on attributing causes to observed trends rather than predicting individual events. This field, known as extreme event attribution, increasingly examines the role of climate change alongside natural variability.^[6] The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine advocate for improved shared practices in attribution research to better connect scientific outcomes with weather forecasting.^[27]

Climate Models

Climate models are indispensable tools for predicting future atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial characteristics based on current data. While vital for understanding complex processes like climate change, these models are approximations and must account for numerous atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, and moisture, in addition to climate change and natural variability influences.^[28] They provide crucial simulations for mitigating negative changes.

Future Outlook

Evidence suggests a global increase in climate-related events, with a significant rise in reported incidents between 1980-1999 and 2000-2019.^[38] Climate models consistently indicate that rising global temperatures will intensify extreme weather events worldwide, leading to amplified human loss, infrastructure damage, economic costs, and ecosystem destruction. The increasing probability of record-breaking heat extremes is particularly sensitive to the rate of warming.^[39]

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Climatic Extremes

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Extreme Weather ℹ️

📊 Beyond the Norm

🚨 Extreme vs. Severe

🌪️ Diverse Manifestations

Key Extreme Weather Types 🌡️

☀️ Heat Waves

❄️ Cold Waves

🌧️ Heavy Rain & Droughts

Underlying Causes 🔬

🌀 Natural Variability

🏭 Anthropogenic Influence

📈 Climate Change

Tropical Cyclones & Climate 🌀

🌊 Formation & Dynamics

⬆️ Intensification Trends

💸 Economic & Social Costs

Societal & Economic Impacts 📉

💰 Economic Burden

💔 Human Casualties

🏗️ Exacerbating Factors

Attribution & Future Projections 🔮

🔍 Attribution Science

💻 Climate Models

➡️ Future Outlook

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Extreme Weather

Beyond the Norm

Extreme vs. Severe

Diverse Manifestations

Key Extreme Weather Types

Heat Waves

Cold Waves

Heavy Rain & Droughts

Underlying Causes

Natural Variability

Anthropogenic Influence

Climate Change

Tropical Cyclones & Climate

Formation & Dynamics

Intensification Trends

Economic & Social Costs

Societal & Economic Impacts

Economic Burden

Human Casualties

Exacerbating Factors

Attribution & Future Projections

Attribution Science

Climate Models

Future Outlook

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

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Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice