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The Path of Purity

An in-depth academic examination of the *Mahāvratas* and *Aṇuvratas*, the foundational ethical principles guiding Jain ascetics and householders towards spiritual liberation.

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Overview

Dual Paths of Conduct

Jain ethical philosophy delineates two distinct yet interconnected *dharmas*, or codes of conduct. One is meticulously crafted for those who embark upon the ascetic path, dedicating their lives to monasticism. The other is designed for *śrāvakas*, or householders, who integrate Jain principles into their daily lives within society. Central to both paths are five fundamental vows, which serve as the bedrock of Jain ethical practice.

Degrees of Observance

For householders, these five vows are observed with a partial commitment, known as *aṇuvratas* (minor vows), acknowledging the practicalities of lay life. Ascetics, however, embrace these vows with profound strictness, practicing complete abstinence and rigorous adherence. The core five vows are: *Ahiṃsā* (Non-violence), *Satya* (Truth), *Asteya* (Non-stealing), *Brahmacharya* (Chastity), and *Aparigraha* (Non-possession).

The Essence of Purity

As articulated in the Jain text *Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya* (42):

All these subdivisions (injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and attachment) are *hiṃsā* as indulgence in these sullies the pure nature of the soul. Falsehood etc. have been mentioned separately only to make the disciple understand through illustrations.

Beyond these primary vows, householders are also expected to observe seven supplementary vows (*śeelas*) and, ultimately, the *sallekhanā* vow at the culmination of life.[2][3]

Major Vows (*Mahāvratas*)

Ascetic's Path to Perfection

The *Mahāvratas*, or major vows, represent the five foundational principles rigorously observed by Jain ascetics. These profound commitments are extensively detailed in revered texts such as the *Tattvartha Sutra* (Chapter 7)[4] and the *Acaranga Sutra* (Book 2, Lecture 15).[5] Acharya Samantabhadra's *Ratnakaraṇḍaka śrāvakācāra* (72) encapsulates their essence:

Abstaining from the commitment of five kinds of sins (injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and attachment) by way of doing these by oneself, causing these to be done, and approval when done by others, through the three kinds of activity (of body, speech, and thought), constitutes the great vows (*mahāvratas*) of celebrated ascetics.

Ahimsa: Non-Violence

Ahimsa, the principle of non-injury, stands as the first and paramount vow in Jain doctrine. It mandates the avoidance of harm to all living beings, whether subtle or gross, movable or immovable. The *Tattvarthsutra* defines injury as "The severance of vitalities out of passion." This vow extends beyond physical harm to encompass mental and verbal non-violence, forming the cornerstone of Jain ethics.

Satya: Truthfulness

Satya is the solemn vow to abstain from lying and to speak only the truth.[7] For a Jain monk or nun, this implies either maintaining silence or articulating only that which is verifiably true.[8] Pravin Shah emphasizes that this great vow encompasses "speech, mind, and deed," extending to actively discouraging and disapproving falsehoods perpetrated by others.[9] Falsehood, being rooted in passion, is considered a form of *hiṃsā* (injury).[10][11]

Asteya: Non-Stealing

Asteya, as a major vow, dictates that one must not take anything that has not been freely given and without explicit permission.[12] This principle applies universally, regardless of the item's value or whether it appears unattended or unclaimed. The vow of non-stealing extends to actions, speech, and thoughts. A mendicant is further enjoined not to encourage or approve of such activities in others.[9] The *Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya* states: "Driven by passions, taking anything that has not been given be termed as theft and since theft causes injury, it is *hiṃsā*."[13]

According to the *Tattvarthasutra*, five specific observances strengthen the vow of Asteya:[14]

  • Residence in a solitary place.
  • Residence in a deserted habitation.
  • Causing no hindrance to others.
  • Acceptance of clean food.
  • Not quarreling with brother monks.

Brahmacharya: Chastity

For Jain mendicants, Brahmacharya is the profound vow of celibacy, entailing the complete avoidance of any form of sexual activity, whether through physical action, spoken words, or mental inclination. A monk or nun is expected to transcend all sensual pleasures, encompassing all five senses. This vow also prohibits encouraging others to engage in sexual or sensual activities, or approving of such conduct by other ascetics.[9][15]

Aparigraha: Non-Possession

Aparigraha, the vow of non-possession, addresses the cessation of attachment. The *Tattvarthsutra* defines "infatuation as attachment to possessions."[16] Jain texts categorize attachment to possessions (*parigraha*) into two forms: internal possessions (*ābhyantara parigraha*) and external possessions (*bāhya parigraha*).[17] Both internal and external attachments are considered forms of *hiṃsā* (injury) in Jain philosophy.[18]

The fourteen internal possessions that ascetics must overcome include:[18]

  • Wrong belief
  • The three sex-passions:
    • Male sex-passion
    • Female sex-passion
    • Neuter sex-passion
  • Six defects:
    • Laughter
    • Liking
    • Disliking
    • Sorrow
    • Fear
    • Disgust
  • Four passions:
    • Anger
    • Pride
    • Deceitfulness
    • Greed

The 25 Clauses of *Ācārāṅga Sūtra*

The *Ācārāṅga Sūtra*, in Book 2, Lecture 15, elaborates on the five major vows through 25 specific clauses, providing detailed guidance for ascetic practice. These clauses, translated by Hermann Jacobi in 1884, offer a profound insight into the practical application of the *Mahāvratas*.[5]

  1. I renounce all killing of living beings, whether subtile or gross, whether movable or immovable.
    Nor shall I myself kill living beings (nor cause others to do it, nor consent to it).
    As long as I live, I confess and blame, repent and exempt myself of these sins, in the thrice threefold way,[note 1] in mind, speech, and body.
    1. A Nirgrantha is careful in his walk, not careless.[note 2]
      The Kevalin assigns as the reason, that a Nirgrantha, careless in his walk, might (with his feet) hurt or displace or injure or kill living beings.
      Hence a Nirgrantha is careful in his walk, not careless in his walk.
    2. A Nirgrantha searches into his mind (i.e. thoughts and intentions). If his mind is sinful, blamable, intent on works, acting on impulses,[note 3] produces cutting and splitting (or division and dissension), quarrels, faults, and pains, injures living beings, or kills creatures, he should not employ such a mind in action. But if, on the contrary, it is not sinful, etc., then he may put it in action.
    3. A Nirgrantha searches into his speech; if his speech is sinful, blamable, intent on works, acting on impulses, produces cutting and splitting (or division and dissension), quarrels, faults, and pains, injures living beings, or kills creatures, he should not utter that speech. But if, on the contrary, it is not sinful, etc., then he may utter it.
    4. A Nirgrantha is careful in laying down his utensils of begging, he is not careless in it.
      The Kevalin says: A Nirgrantha who is careless in laying down his utensils of begging, might hurt or displace or injure or kill all sorts of living beings.
      Hence a Nirgrantha is careful in laying down his utensils of begging, he is not careless in it.
    5. A Nirgrantha eats and drinks after inspecting his food and drink; he does not eat and drink without inspecting his food and drink.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha would eat and drink without inspecting his food and drink, he might hurt and displace or injure or kill all sorts of living beings.
      Hence a Nirgrantha eats and drinks after inspecting his food and drink, not without doing so.
  2. I renounce all vices of lying speech (arising) from anger or greed or fear or mirth.
    I shall neither myself speak lies, nor cause others to speak lies, nor consent to the speaking of lies by others.
    I confess and blame, repent and exempt myself of these sins in the thrice threefold way, in mind, speech, and body.
    1. A Nirgrantha speaks after deliberation, not without deliberation.
      The Kevalin says: Without deliberation a Nirgrantha might utter a falsehood in his speech.
    2. A Nirgrantha comprehends (and renounces) anger, he is not angry.
      The Kevalin says: A Nirgrantha who is moved by anger, and is angry, might utter a falsehood in his speech.
    3. A Nirgrantha comprehends (and renounces) greed, he is not greedy.
      The Kevalin says: A Nirgrantha who is moved by greed, and is greedy, might utter a falsehood in his speech.
    4. A Nirgrantha comprehends (and renounces) fear, he is not afraid.
      The Kevalin says: A Nirgrantha who is moved by fear, and is afraid, might utter a falsehood in his speech.
    5. A Nirgrantha comprehends (and renounces) mirth, he is not mirthful.
      The Kevalin says: A Nirgrantha who is moved by mirth, and is mirthful, might utter a falsehood in his speech.
  3. I renounce all taking of anything not given, either in a village or a town or a wood, either of little or much, of small or great, of living or lifeless things.
    I shall neither take myself what is not given, nor cause others to take it, nor consent to their taking it.
    As long as I live, I confess and blame, repent and exempt myself of these sins, in the thrice threefold way, in mind, speech, and body.
    1. A Nirgrantha begs after deliberation, for a limited ground, not without deliberation.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha begs without deliberation for a limited ground, he might take what is not given.
    2. A Nirgrantha consumes his food and drink with permission (of his superior), not without his permission.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha consumes his food and drink without the superior’s permission, he might eat what is not given.
    3. A Nirgrantha who has taken possession of some ground, should always take possession of a limited part of it and for a fixed time.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha who has taken possession of some ground, should take possession of an unlimited part of it and for an unfixed time, he might take what is not given.
    4. A Nirgrantha who has taken possession of some ground, should constantly have his grant renewed.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha has not constantly his grant renewed, he might take possession of what is not given.
    5. A Nirgrantha begs for a limited ground for his co-religionists after deliberation, not without deliberation.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha should beg without deliberation, he might take possession of what is not given.
  4. I renounce all sexual pleasures, either with gods or men or animals.
    I shall not give way to sensuality, etc. ... and exempt myself.
    1. A Nirgrantha does not continually discuss topics relating to women.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha discusses such topics, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
    2. A Nirgrantha does not regard and contemplate the lovely forms of women.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha regards and contemplates the lovely forms of women, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
    3. A Nirgrantha does not recall to his mind the pleasures and amusements he formerly had with women.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha recalls to his mind the pleasures and amusements he formerly had with women, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
    4. A Nirgrantha does not eat and drink too much, nor does he drink liquors or eat highly-seasoned dishes.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha did eat and drink too much, or did drink liquors and eat highly-seasoned dishes, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
    5. A Nirgrantha does not occupy a bed or couch affected[note 4] by women, animals, or eunuchs.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha did occupy a bed or couch affected by women, animals, or eunuchs, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
  5. I renounce all attachments,[note 5] whether little or much, small or great, living or lifeless;
    neither shall I myself form such attachments, nor cause others to do so, nor consent to their doing so, etc. ... and exempt myself.
    1. If a creature with ears hears agreeable and disagreeable sounds, it should not be attached to, nor delighted with, nor desiring of, nor infatuated by, nor covetous of, nor disturbed by the agreeable or disagreeable sounds.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha is thus affected by the pleasant or unpleasant sounds, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
      If it is impossible not to hear sounds, which reach the ear, the mendicant should avoid love or hate, originated by them.
    2. If a creature with eyes sees agreeable and disagreeable forms (or colours), it should not be attached, etc., to them.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha is thus affected by the pleasant or unpleasant forms, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
      If it is impossible not to see forms, which reach the eye, the mendicant should avoid love or hate, originated by them.
    3. If a creature with an organ of smell smells agreeable or disagreeable smells, it should not be attached, etc., to them.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha is thus affected by the pleasant or unpleasant smells, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
      If it is impossible not to smell the smells, which reach the nose, the mendicant should avoid love or hate, originated by them.
    4. If a creature with a tongue tastes agreeable or disagreeable tastes, it should not be attached, etc., to them.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha is thus affected by the pleasant or unpleasant tastes, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
      If it is impossible not to taste the tastes, which reach the tongue, the mendicant should avoid love or hate, originated by them.
    5. If a creature with an organ of feeling feels agreeable or disagreeable touches, it should not be attached, etc., to them.
      The Kevalin says: If a Nirgrantha is thus affected by the pleasant or unpleasant touches, he might fall from the law declared by the Kevalin, because of the destruction or disturbance of his peace.
      If it is impossible not to feel the touches, which reach the organ of feeling, the mendicant should avoid love or hate, originated by them.
He who is well provided with these great vows and their 25 clauses is really Houseless, if he, according to the sacred lore, the precepts, and the way correctly practises, follows, executes, explains, establishes, and, according to the precept, effects them.

Minor Vows (*Aṇuvratas*)

Ethical Living for Householders

While the *Mahāvratas* are the strict domain of Jain ascetics, the *Aṇuvratas* (minor vows) provide a practical ethical framework for laypeople, or householders. Jain texts acknowledge that the daily activities of a layperson inevitably involve some degree of *hiṃsā* (violence) towards living beings. Therefore, the minor vows emphasize a conscious reduction of negative impact and active efforts towards protection.[12]

Adaptations for Lay Life

These minor vows are structured similarly to the great vows but are less demanding and restrictive, accommodating the responsibilities of family, community, and society that ascetics forgo.[12] For instance, *brahmacharya* for householders translates to chastity and sexual fidelity within one's partnership.[12] Similarly, a householder's *ahimsa* vow focuses on avoiding gross violence against higher life forms and actively protecting animals from harm, contrasting with an ascetic's comprehensive avoidance of violence to all six types of living beings.[12]

Supplementary Vows (*Śeelas*)

In addition to the five fundamental minor vows, a *śrāvaka* is encouraged to observe seven supplementary vows (*śeelas*). These are further categorized into three *guṇa vratas* (Merit vows) and four *śikṣā vratas* (Disciplinary vows).[19] The *Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya* beautifully illustrates their significance:

The man who incessantly observes all the supplementary vows and *sallekhanā* (together, these are called *śeelas*) for the sake of safeguarding his vows (*vratas*), gets fervently garlanded (a gesture to indicate her choice for a husband) by the maiden called 'liberation'.

These minor vows are characterized by their consideration of a householder's responsibilities, and are often limited in time and scope.[21]

Merit Vows (*Guṇa Vratas*)

The three *guṇa vratas* are designed to enhance the quality of the primary vows:

  1. ***Digvrata:*** Restriction on movement with regard to directions, limiting one's sphere of activity to reduce potential harm.
  2. ***Bhogopabhogaparimana:*** The vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things, fostering detachment and mindful consumption.
  3. ***Anartha-daṇḍaviramana:*** Refraining from harmful occupations and activities, specifically purposeless sins that do not serve a constructive purpose.

Disciplinary Vows (*Śikṣā Vratas*)

The four *śikṣā vratas* are disciplinary vows that promote spiritual development and self-control:

  1. ***Sāmāyika:*** The vow to meditate and concentrate periodically, dedicating specific times to spiritual introspection.
  2. ***Deśāvrata:*** Limiting movement to certain places for a fixed period of time, further restricting one's sphere of influence and potential for harm.[22]
  3. ***Poṣadhopavāsa:*** Fasting at regular intervals, a practice of austerity and self-purification.
  4. ***Atihti samvibhag (or Dānavrata):*** The vow of offering food to ascetics and needy people, embodying compassion and generosity.

Sallekhanā

The Ultimate Vow of Self-Purification

Sallekhanā is a profound vow undertaken by both ascetics and householders at the end of their lives, after having diligently observed all prescribed vows to shed *karmas*.[19] It is a voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake, leading to a peaceful and conscious departure from the body. This practice is not considered suicide but rather a disciplined act of spiritual purification and detachment, performed with full awareness and under the guidance of a spiritual teacher.

Carrying the Wealth of Piety

According to the Jain text *Purushartha Siddhyupaya*, "sallekhanā enables a householder to carry with him his wealth of piety."[23] This highlights the belief that through this ultimate act of self-control and detachment, an individual consolidates their spiritual achievements, ensuring a favorable transition and further progress on the path to liberation. It is a testament to the profound commitment to Jain principles throughout one's existence.

Transgressions

Breaching the Vows

Jain ethical texts meticulously outline specific transgressions for each of the five major vows and the supplementary vows. Understanding these potential breaches is crucial for maintaining the purity and integrity of one's spiritual practice.[24] These transgressions serve as detailed guidelines, helping practitioners identify and avoid actions, words, or thoughts that could compromise their vows and accumulate negative karma.

Detailed Transgressions for Vows and Supplementary Vows

The following table provides a comprehensive overview of the specific transgressions associated with each major and supplementary vow, as detailed in Jain scriptures:

Category Vow Transgressions
Five Major Vows Ahiṃsā Binding, beating, mutilating limbs, overloading, withholding food and drink[25]
Satya Perverted teaching, divulging what is done in secret, forgery, misappropriation, and proclaiming other's thoughts.[26]
Asteya Prompting others to steal, receiving stolen goods, under-buying in a disordered state, using false weights and measures, and deceiving others with artificial or imitation goods.
Brahmacharya Bringing about marriage, intercourse with an unchaste married woman, cohabitation with a harlot, perverted sexual practices, and excessive sexual passion.[27]
Aparigraha Exceeding the limits set by oneself with regard to cultivable lands and houses, riches such as gold and silver, cattle and corn, men and women servants, and clothes.
Merit Vows (*Guṇa Vratas*) Digvrata Exceeding the limits set in the directions, namely upwards, downwards and horizontally, enlarging the boundaries in the accepted directions, and forgetting the boundaries set, are the five transgressions of the minor vow of direction.
Bhogopabhogaparimana Victuals containing (one-sensed) organisms, placed near organisms, mixed with organisms, stimulants, and ill-cooked food.
Anartha-daṇḍaviramana Vulgar jokes, vulgar jokes accompanied by gesticulation, garrulity, unthinkingly indulging in too much action, keeping too many consumable and non-consumable objects.[28]
Disciplinary Vows (*Śikṣā Vratas*) Sāmāyika Misdirected three-fold activity, lack of earnestness, and fluctuation of thought.[29]
Deśāvrata Sending for something outside the country of one's resolve, commanding someone there to do thus, indicating one's intentions by sounds, by showing oneself and by throwing clod, etc.
Poṣadhopavāsa Excreting, handling sandalwood paste, flowers etc., and spreading mats and garments without inspecting and cleaning the place and the materials, lack of earnestness, and lack of concentration.
Atihti samvibhag Placing the food on things with organisms such as green leaves, covering it with such things, food of another host, envy and untimely food.
Sallekhanā Vow Sallekhanā Desire for life, desire for death, recollection of affection for friends, recollection of pleasures and constant longing for enjoyment.[30]

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References

References

  1.  This could also be translated: he who is careful in his walk is a Nirgrantha, not he who is careless.
A full list of references for this article are available at the Five Vows Wikipedia page

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