What is the fundamental definition of flagellation, flogging, or whipping?

Flagellation, also known as flogging or whipping, is defined as the act of beating the human body using specific implements such as whips, rods, switches, the cat o' nine tails, the sjambok, or the knout. While typically imposed as a punishment on an unwilling subject, it can also be willingly submitted to or self-administered in sadomasochistic or religious contexts.

Which areas of the body are typically targeted during flagellation, and what is 'bastinado'?

The strokes of flagellation are typically aimed at the unclothed back of a person. A moderated subform, known as 'bastinado,' specifically targets the soles of a person's bare feet for beating, which is also referred to as foot whipping.

How did British legal terminology distinguish between 'flogging' and 'whipping' before their abolition?

In British legal terminology, a distinction was drawn between 'flogging,' which was typically administered with a cat o' nine tails, and 'whipping,' which was historically done with a whip but, since the early 19th century, was carried out with a birch. Both forms of corporal punishment were abolished in Britain in 1948.

What are some common implements used for flagellation, and how are they described?

Common implements for flagellation include the birch rod, a bundle of birch twigs used in British judicial and school punishments; the cat o' nine tails, a multi-corded whip traditionally used in naval and military punishments; the knout, a stiff, braided leather whip from Imperial Russia; the sjambok, a heavy leather or plastic whip originating from Southern Africa; and the switch, a single flexible twig or branch often used informally or for minor corporal punishment.

In which parts of the world is flogging or whipping still a common punishment today?

Although officially abolished in most countries, flogging or whipping, including foot whipping in some regions, remains a common punishment in certain parts of the world. This is particularly true in countries that apply Islamic law and in some territories that were former British colonies.

How does the practice of caning in Singapore and Malaysia reflect their British colonial legacy?

Caning in Singapore and Malaysia is a direct legacy of British colonial rule from the 19th century, where courts may still order it as a penalty for certain crimes. Unlike public floggings in Sharia courts, these punishments are administered privately, with the accused tied to special frames and a doctor in attendance to monitor their condition.

What types of offenses are subject to caning in Singapore and Malaysia as of 2024?

As of 2024, Singapore mandates caning and imprisonment for approximately 30 different offenses, including specific instances of rape, robbery, and drug trafficking. In Malaysia, 60 offenses are subject to caning, routinely mandated by judges for crimes like kidnapping, rape, and robbery, as well as nonviolent offenses such as narcotics possession, criminal breach of trust, migrant smuggling, and immigration offenses.

What recent legal development occurred in Tanzania regarding corporal punishment?

On September 5, 2023, Tanzania, another former British colony, was ordered by the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights to remove corporal punishment from its laws. This directive aims to align Tanzania's legal framework with the charter that established the court, which promotes human rights.

How is flogging practiced in the Maldives, and what unique aspects does it have?

In the Maldives, where Sharia law is combined with English common law, flogging is a legal punishment, primarily for extramarital sex, with women being the most common recipients. While typically a paddle is used, a 'less harsh' tool, such as peacock feathers, a handkerchief, or a string of 100 rosary beads (each bead counting as a lash), may be substituted for offenders with greater political influence.

What did journalist Robert Fisk report about flogging in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates between 1993 and 1995?

Journalist Robert Fisk reported that between 1993 and 1995, 'hundreds' of young Asian guest workers, primarily women, in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates were sentenced to flogging, sometimes receiving as many as 200 lashes, by Sharia courts. These individuals were often expelled 'penniless' to their home countries for alleged theft or 'supposed immoral behaviour'.

What is the current status of flogging in the United Arab Emirates according to US State Department reports?

The US State Department Human Rights Practices Report for 2021 indicated that flogging under the UAE federal penal code was abolished, but it continued to be imposed under the UAE's separate Sharia courts for criminal and family law cases, specifically for offenses like adultery, defamation, and drug or alcohol use. However, the 2022 report did not mention corporal punishment in the UAE at all, suggesting a potential shift in reporting or practice.

What types of offenses were punishable by lashing in Saudi Arabia, and what was the case of Raif Badawi?

In Saudi Arabia, lashing was a prescribed punishment (hadd) for offenses such as homosexuality, fornication, adultery, alcohol consumption, theft, and slander. It was also used as a discretionary punishment (ta'zir) for many other offenses, including violating gender interaction laws. A notable contemporary case was that of Raif Badawi, a Saudi blogger sentenced multiple times between 2012 and 2014 to 1,000 lashes and 10 years in prison for 'insulting Islam' online.

What changes have occurred regarding flogging as punishment in Saudi Arabia since 2020?

In April 2020, the Supreme Court of Saudi Arabia announced the abolition of flogging as a form of punishment, intending to replace it with prison sentences or fines. However, as of 2024, a leaked draft of the government's proposed written legal code still included lashing as a punishment, indicating a potential discrepancy or ongoing legal reform process.

How prevalent is flogging in the Islamic Republic of Iran, and for what purposes is it used?

According to the Abdorrahman Boroumand Center, courts in the Islamic Republic of Iran have sentenced 'thousands' of individuals to flogging over a 30-year period, with sentences sometimes exceeding 300 or 400 lashes. There are 'at least' 148 offenses punishable by flogging, including Sharia hudood punishments for alcohol use and fornication, and it is also employed during the interrogation of detainees.

What was the Taliban's stance on public flogging after recapturing Afghanistan in 2021?

After recapturing Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban announced the reintroduction of Islamic law, which included public flogging, and they denounced international human rights activists who criticized this practice. For example, on November 23, 2022, 14 convicts were publicly flogged in a sports stadium in Logar Province, witnessed by hundreds of people.

How did Pakistan's Hudud Ordinances in 1979 impact punishments, and what subsequent legal changes occurred?

In 1979, Pakistan enacted Hudud Ordinances as part of the Islamization of Pakistan, introducing new criminal offenses and punishments, including whipping, amputation, and stoning to death, which are part of Sharia law. The Abolition of Whipping Act in 1996 subsequently allowed only 'hadd' sentences to include whipping or lashing, significantly reducing its use. In 2006, the Women's Protection Bill extensively revised parts of the Hudud law, making it less difficult and dangerous to prove allegations of rape.

What are the specific practices of caning in Aceh, Indonesia, regarding gender and frequency?

In Aceh, Indonesia, the only province that enforces Sharia law, women offenders are flogged by other women to prevent mixing of the sexes. In 2015, Amnesty International reported 108 people were punished for various offenses. More recently, from January to October 2024, there were five reported cases of caning, including one in September 2024 where nine individuals received seven lashes for online gambling, in addition to prison sentences.

What are the regulations and current status of caning under Brunei's Sharia Penal Code?

As of 2024, Brunei's Sharia Penal Code (SPC) allows for caning for Sharia offenses, and it is also a punishment for certain secular law offenses. Caning is prohibited for women and males under 8 or over 50, or if a doctor, who must be present, orders an interruption for medical reasons. In 2024, no canings were administered in Brunei.

How was flagellation used as a form of torture in Syria under the Al-Assad regimes and by ISIS?

In Syria, flagellation was a common form of torture used against political dissidents, prisoners of war, and civilians during the reigns of Hafez and Bashar Al-Assad from 1971 to 2024. The extremist Islamist group ISIS also frequently employed flagellation, often tying prisoners to the ceiling and whipping them for failing to adhere to strict laws or for other reasons, with Raqqa Stadium serving as a common venue for such torture.

What are the historical limitations on flagellation in Jewish law?

According to the Torah (Deuteronomy 25:1–3) and Rabbinic law, lashes (Malkot) could be administered for offenses not warranting capital punishment, but the total number could not exceed 40 strokes. In practice, Jewish law (Halakha) limited flagellation to 39 strokes to avoid accidentally exceeding the legal limit due to a miscount. Additionally, the individual's ability to withstand the punishment was assessed, and the number of whips would be decreased if necessary. However, corporal punishment is not practiced in Jewish law in the absence of a Sanhedrin, a legislative or judicial assembly of elders.

Who was typically subjected to Roman flagellation, and what was the procedure?

The Romans generally reserved flagellation for non-citizens, as stipulated by the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia. The person to be punished was usually stripped naked and bound to a low pillar, allowing them to bend over, or chained to an upright pillar to be stretched out. Two or more lictors would alternate blows from the bare shoulders down to the soles of the feet, with no fixed limit to the number of blows, though they were generally not supposed to kill the victim.

What was the 'Whipping Act' of 1530 in England, and how did public whipping evolve?

The Whipping Act, passed in England in 1530, mandated that vagrants be tied naked to the end of a cart and beaten with whips through a market town until their bodies were bloody. Initially, offenders, mostly thieves, were publicly flogged 'at a cart's tail' near the crime scene. Over time, courts began to differentiate between private and public whippings, with public whippings declining and private ones increasing. Public whipping of women was abolished in 1817, and for men in the early 1830s, though not formally until 1862.

When was private whipping in English prisons abolished, and what about school corporal punishment?

Private whipping of men in English prisons continued until it was abolished in 1948. The power of prison's visiting justices to order birching or the cat o' nine tails for serious assaults on prison staff was not abolished until 1967, with its last use in 1962. School whipping was outlawed in publicly funded schools in 1986 and in privately funded schools between 1998 and 2003.

What notable incident of public whipping occurred during the French Revolution?

During the French Revolution, on May 31, 1793, Jacobin women seized revolutionary leader Anne Josephe Theroigne de Mericourt, stripped her naked, and publicly flogged her on the bare bottom in the Tuileries garden. This humiliation reportedly caused her to refuse to wear clothes afterward and eventually led to her going mad and ending her days in an asylum.

How were knouts used as punishment in the Russian Empire?

In the Russian Empire, knouts, which are stiff, braided leather whips, were used to flog criminals and political offenders. Sentences of a hundred lashes typically resulted in death, and whipping was also a common punishment for Russian serfs.

What was the fate of Saudi Arabian poet Ashraf Fayadh regarding flagellation?

Ashraf Fayadh, a Saudi Arabian poet born in 1980, was imprisoned for eight years and sentenced to 800 lashes for apostasy in 2016, a sentence that replaced an earlier death penalty. In April 2020, Saudi Arabia announced it would replace flogging with prison sentences or fines, according to a government document.

How was whipping utilized as a form of discipline for slaves in the United States?

Whipping was routinely used as a form of discipline for enslaved people during the period of slavery in the United States, administered by both slave owners and their overseers. This power was also extended to slave 'patrolers,' an early form of police force, who were authorized to whip any enslaved person violating the slave codes. Even President George Washington approved of the whipping of enslaved people.

What was the significance of the 'Whipped Peter' photograph during the American Civil War?

In 1863, a photograph known as 'Whipped Peter' circulated widely, depicting an enslaved African-American man named Gordon with severe keloid scars across his back from being whipped. This powerful image sparked widespread outcry against the brutality of slavery and significantly contributed to anti-slavery sentiment during the Civil War.

How did military flogging evolve in the United States Army and Navy?

During the American Revolutionary War, the American Congress increased the legal limit on lashes for soldiers convicted by courts-martial from 39 to 100. In the Navy, captains initially had wide discretion, with some like Isaac Chauncey awarding over a hundred lashes. A 1815 law limited captains to twelve lashes, reserving more severe cases for court-martial. By 1846, annual reports on flogging were required, and the maximum was capped at 12 lashes. Flogging was eventually banned on all U.S. ships in September 1850, largely due to Senator John P. Hale's advocacy influenced by Herman Melville's writings, and in the United States Army on August 5, 1861.

What was the average number of lashes in the British Navy between 1790 and 1820, and what was 'flogged around the fleet'?

Between 1790 and 1820, flogging in the British Navy averaged 19.5 lashes per man. 'Flogged around the fleet' was a severe punishment where a significant number of lashes, up to 600, was divided among ships on a station. The condemned person was taken to each ship to be flogged, or rowed among ships in a boat while their companies observed the punishment, to maximize public humiliation and deterrence.

What was the 'Great Cat Contention' in the British House of Commons in 1879?

In June 1879, a motion to abolish flogging in the Royal Navy was debated in the House of Commons. John O'Connor Power, a member for Mayo, famously requested that the navy's cat o' nine tails be brought to the Commons Library so members could see the instrument they were voting on. This event, known as the 'Great Cat Contention,' led to the motion being passed, quietly abolishing flogging in the Royal Navy.

What was the maximum number of lashes inflicted on British soldiers during the Napoleonic Wars, and what was its impact?

During the Napoleonic Wars, the British Army could inflict up to 1,200 lashes on soldiers, a punishment that could permanently disable or kill a man. Historian Charles Oman noted that such maximum sentences were rare but that 1,000 lashes were administered about 50 times. Wellington supported this code, but many officers recognized its brutalizing effect, turning good soldiers into bad ones by destroying their self-respect and sense of justice.

What was the 'Flogging Act' in Northern Ireland, and how was it used?

Shortly after its establishment, Northern Ireland enacted the Special Powers Act of 1922, known as the 'Flogging Act.' This legislation empowered the government to take necessary steps to preserve peace and order, including flogging for firearms offenses. It also allowed authorities to prohibit inquests, impose curfews, and ban organizations and newspapers. The act remained in place until 1973, and an Irish Republican Army member, Frank Morris, recalled receiving 15 'strokes of the cat' in 1942, enduring dreadful pain without screaming.

How did the King's German Legion (KGL) and French citizens react to British military flogging?

The King's German Legion (KGL), German units in British pay, did not practice flogging; in one instance, a German commander refused to carry out a flogging sentence on a British soldier. In 1814, when the British 73rd Foot flogged a man in occupied France, disgusted French citizens protested against the practice, highlighting a cultural difference in military discipline.

What was the role of flagellation in British penal colonies in Australia?

Flagellation was a prominent form of punishment in British penal colonies in early colonial Australia, used for offenses committed by convicts who were already imprisoned. Unlike Roman law, British law forbade combining corporal and capital punishment, meaning a convict was either flogged or hanged, but not both. This practice was a key method of discipline and control in the colonies.

Describe the typical procedure for flagellation in Australian penal colonies.

In Australian penal colonies, the offender's upper body was bared, and they were suspended by the wrists beneath a wooden tripod known as 'the triangle,' often with their feet barely touching the ground to stretch the skin and increase pain. One or two floggers administered the lashes, while a doctor observed to ensure the prisoner remained conscious. If the prisoner fainted, the whipping would pause until they were revived, then resume. After the flogging, the lacerated back was typically rinsed with brine as a painful disinfectant.

Were female convicts subjected to flagellation in Australian penal colonies, and what was the purpose of public floggings?

Yes, female convicts were also subjected to flogging as punishment, both on convict ships and in the penal colonies, though they generally received fewer lashes than males, usually limited to 40 per flogging. Floggings for both sexes were public events, assembled before the entire colony, serving not only to inflict pain but also to humiliate offenders and forcefully demonstrate submission to authority.

When was the last recorded instance of flogging in Australia?

The last recorded instance of flogging in Australia occurred in 1958, when William John O'Meally was flogged in Melbourne's Pentridge Prison.

How was flagellation incorporated into ancient Roman religious festivals?

During the ancient Roman festival of Lupercalia, young men would run through the streets, whipping people with thongs cut from the hides of recently sacrificed goats. Women would intentionally expose themselves to these blows on their hands, believing it would aid conception or ensure an easy childbirth. Additionally, the eunuch priests of the goddess Cybele, known as the Galli, flogged themselves until they bled during their annual festival, Dies Sanguinis.

What is 'The Flagellation' in a Christian context, and what is a 'discipline'?

In a Christian context, 'The Flagellation' refers to an episode in the Passion of Christ where Jesus was whipped before his crucifixion. The practice of 'mortification of the flesh' for religious purposes has been used by various Christian denominations. Today, the instrument of penance for self-flagellation is called a 'discipline,' typically a cattail whip made of knotted cords, which is repeatedly flung over the shoulders during private prayer.

Who were the Flagellants, and what was their practice during the Black Plague?

The Flagellants were a group of Roman Catholics in the 13th century who practiced extreme self-mortification, traveling to towns to publicly beat and whip each other while preaching repentance. During the Black Plague, flagellation was also practiced as a means to purify oneself of sin and prevent contracting the disease, with Pope Clement VI initially permitting it in 1348 before condemning the Flagellants as a cult the following year.

Which prominent Christian figures practiced self-flagellation?

Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformer, regularly practiced self-flagellation as a form of mortification of the flesh before leaving the Roman Catholic Church. Similarly, the Congregationalist writer Sarah Osborn (1714–1796) practiced self-flagellation to remind herself of her sinfulness. Within the Anglican Communion, members of the Tractarian movement, including figures like Gladstone, commonly practiced self-flagellation using the discipline. More recently, Pope John Paul II was also known to take the discipline regularly.

How does St. Thérèse of Lisieux's view differ on physical penance?

St. Thérèse of Lisieux, a late 19th-century French Discalced Carmelite nun and Doctor of the Church, questioned prevailing attitudes toward physical penance. Her view emphasized that loving acceptance of the many sufferings of daily life was more pleasing to God and fostered better relationships with others than taking on extraneous sufferings through instruments of penance, though she herself practiced voluntary corporal mortification as a Carmelite nun.

What role does flogging play in Islamic law (Sharia)?

In Islamic law, or Sharia, flogging is a sanctioned punishment for both prescribed offenses (hudud) and discretionary offenses (ta'zir). Hudud punishments include 80 lashes for false accusation of adultery or fornication (qadhf) and 40 to 80 lashes for drinking alcohol, depending on the legal school. Ta'zir punishments, such as for violating gender interaction laws, also utilize flogging. Punishments are typically carried out in public.

What are the traditional guidelines for administering lashes in Islamic law?

Traditionally in Islamic society, lashes for punishment are often performed with the Quran held under one arm to minimize the swing, serving as a reminder of the source of legislation. The strokes are not intended to leave permanent scars, and when a high number of lashes is prescribed, they are frequently administered in batches to minimize the risk of severe harm. Historically, stringent restrictions on applying hudud punishments meant they were rarely enforced.

How has the application of Sharia-based criminal laws changed in Muslim countries since the 19th century?

During the 19th century, Sharia-based criminal laws in many parts of the Islamic world, outside the Arabian peninsula, were largely replaced by statutes inspired by European legal models. However, the Islamic revival and calls for full implementation of Sharia in the late 20th century led to the reinstatement of lashing and other hudud punishments, often disregarding traditional strict restrictions, in many Muslim countries, with about a dozen applying them by 2013.

Which contemporary Muslim-majority countries include hudud punishments, including flogging, in their legal systems?

In the 21st century, hudud punishments, including flogging, are part of the legal systems in Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and the northern part of Nigeria.

How do some Shia Muslims practice self-flagellation, and what is its significance?

Some Shia Muslims practice self-flagellation, known as tatbir, as a voluntary religious ritual. This practice involves punishing themselves, sometimes symbolically, not for mortification of the flesh like in Christianity, but in memory of the suffering and death of Hussein ibn Ali, and for not aiding the martyr in his final hours. During the month of Muharram, Shi'a communities worldwide, including in India, Pakistan, Iraq, and Lebanon, participate in marches where they mourn Hussein and often engage in bloodletting on their backs with knives, blades, and chains.

Is the practice of tatbir (Shia self-flagellation) controversial, and what is the stance of high-ranking scholars?

Yes, the practice of tatbir is controversial within Islam and has been prohibited by high-ranking Shia scholars (marjas) such as Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, and Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani. Despite these prohibitions, the practice continues among some Shi'ite men and boys.

How is flagellation used as a sexual practice?

Flagellation is also used as a sexual practice within the context of BDSM, where the intensity of the beating is typically far less severe than when used for punishment. Anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped as a prelude or substitute for sex date back to the 14th century, and its practice in an erotic setting has been recorded since at least the 1590s.

Flagellation Wiki: The Scourge of History: An Academic Examination of Flagellation

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Defining Flagellation

Core Concept

Flagellation, derived from the Latin flagellum meaning 'whip', refers to the act of striking the human body with specialized implements such as whips, rods, or switches. This practice has historically been employed as a form of punishment, often inflicted upon an unwilling individual. However, it also encompasses instances of voluntary submission and self-administration within religious or sadomasochistic contexts.

Target Areas and Variations

Typically, the blows are directed towards the unclothed back. Nevertheless, other bodily regions can serve as targets. A notable subform, known as bastinado, specifically involves beating the soles of a person's bare feet, a practice also referred to as foot whipping.

Terminological Nuances

While terms like "flogging," "whipping," and "scourging" are often used interchangeably, historical legal contexts, particularly in Britain, drew distinctions. "Flogging" traditionally referred to punishment with a cat o' nine tails, whereas "whipping" initially involved a whip but later came to denote the use of a birch rod. Both practices were formally abolished in Britain in 1948.

Implements of Discipline

Specialized Instruments

The practice of flagellation has historically utilized a variety of instruments, each designed for specific applications and often carrying distinct cultural or legal connotations. These implements range from simple natural materials to complex, multi-corded devices.

Implement	Description
Birch Rod	A bundle of birch twigs bound together, historically used in British judicial and school punishments.
Cat o' Nine Tails	A multi-corded whip, traditionally employed in naval and military disciplinary actions.
Knout	A stiff, braided leather whip, famously associated with Imperial Russia.
Sjambok	A heavy leather or plastic whip, originating from Southern Africa.
Switch	A single flexible twig or branch, often used informally or for minor corporal punishment.

Contemporary Judicial Use

Global Overview

While largely abolished in most nations, flagellation, including foot whipping, persists as a form of punishment in certain regions globally. This is particularly prevalent in countries that adhere to Islamic law and in some territories that were formerly under British colonial rule.

British Colonial Legacy

The practice of caning, a form of flagellation, remains a court-ordered penalty for specific crimes in countries like Singapore and Malaysia. This continuity is a direct legacy of 19th-century British colonial administration. Unlike public floggings in Sharia courts, these punishments are typically conducted privately, with the accused secured to a frame and a medical professional present.

Singapore (2024): Caning and imprisonment are mandated for approximately 30 offenses, including rape, robbery, drug trafficking, and other serious crimes.
Malaysia (2024): Caning is applicable for 60 offenses, encompassing kidnapping, rape, robbery, and non-violent crimes such as narcotics possession, criminal breach of trust, and immigration violations.
Tanzania (2023): The African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights ordered Tanzania, another former British colony, to abolish corporal punishment from its laws to align with human rights charters.

Islamic Law Jurisdictions

In several Islamic nations, flagellation is a sanctioned punishment under Sharia law, often administered publicly. The specific implements and procedures can vary, with some jurisdictions employing less harsh tools for individuals with greater political influence.

Maldives: Sharia law is integrated with English common law. Flogging is a legal punishment, frequently applied to individuals, predominantly women, convicted of extramarital sex. Implements can range from paddles to peacock feathers or rosary beads, depending on the offender's influence.
Gulf States (e.g., UAE, Saudi Arabia): Historically, flogging was common for offenses like theft and "immoral behavior." While the UAE abolished flogging under its federal penal code, it may still be imposed by Sharia courts for adultery, defamation, and drug/alcohol use. Saudi Arabia officially abolished flogging in April 2020, replacing it with prison sentences or fines, though a leaked draft legal code in 2024 still included it.
Iran: Courts have sentenced thousands to flogging, sometimes exceeding 300-400 lashes, for at least 148 offenses, including Sharia hudood punishments and during the interrogation of detainees.
Afghanistan: Following the Taliban's return in 2021, public flogging under Islamic law was reintroduced. In November 2022, 14 convicts were publicly flogged in Logar province.
Pakistan: Hudud Ordinances in 1979 introduced whipping as a Sharia punishment. The 1996 Abolition of Whipping Act significantly reduced its use, limiting it to hadd sentences. As of 2025, whipping remains under certain Islamic law circumstances.
Indonesia (Aceh): Aceh, the only Indonesian province enforcing Sharia law, practices caning. Women offenders are flogged by other women to avoid gender mixing. In 2024, five cases of caning were reported, including for online gambling.
Brunei: The Sharia Penal Code (SPC) allows caning for Sharia offenses and some secular crimes. Prohibited for women and males under 8 or over 50, or if a doctor intervenes. No canings were administered in 2024.
Syria: Flagellation was a common form of torture for political dissidents, POWs, and civilians under Hafez and Bashar Al-Assad. Extremist groups like ISIS also frequently used it, often tying prisoners to ceilings. The Free Syrian Army also used it, but not the Syrian Democratic Forces.

Historical Applications

Ancient Traditions

Flagellation has deep roots in antiquity, serving various purposes from judicial punishment to religious ritual. Its application often reflected the legal and social structures of the time, with distinct practices emerging across different civilizations.

Judaism

According to the Torah (Deuteronomy 25:1–3) and Rabbinic law, lashes (Malkot) could be administered for offenses not warranting capital punishment, with a limit of 40 strokes. In practice, to avoid exceeding this limit due to miscount, 39 lashes were typically given. The individual's ability to withstand the punishment was also assessed, potentially reducing the number of strokes. However, in the absence of a Sanhedrin, corporal punishment is not practiced in Jewish law today.

Roman Empire

In the Roman Empire, flagellation, often referred to as scourging, frequently preceded crucifixion. The most famous instance is the flagellation of Jesus Christ. Whips tipped with metal or bone were common, capable of causing severe disfigurement, trauma, and hypovolemic shock due to blood loss. This treatment was reserved for non-citizens, as per the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia. Victims were stripped, bound to a pillar, and subjected to an unlimited number of blows, often resulting in death, leading some authors to call it "half death."

Medieval to Modern Eras

From the Middle Ages through modern times, flagellation evolved in its legal and social application, particularly in Europe, before its eventual decline and abolition in many Western nations.

England

1530 Whipping Act: Mandated that vagrants be tied to a cart and publicly beaten with whips until their bodies were bloody.
Public vs. Private Whipping: Initially, offenders (mostly for theft) were flogged "at a cart's tail" in public. By the late 17th century, private whippings in prisons or houses of correction became more common.
Abolition: Public whipping of women ceased in 1817, and of men in the early 1830s (though formally abolished in 1862). Private whipping of men in prison continued until 1948. The power of prison justices to order birching or the cat o' nine tails for serious assaults was abolished in 1967, with the last use in 1962. School whipping was outlawed in publicly funded schools in 1986 and in privately funded schools between 1998 and 2003.

French Revolution

During the French Revolution, flagellation occurred, though not as official punishment. A notable incident involved the public flogging of revolutionary leader Anne Josephe Theroigne de Mericourt in 1793, which reportedly led to her mental decline.

Russian Empire

Knouts were used to flog criminals and political offenders. Sentences of hundreds of lashes often resulted in death. Whipping was also a common punishment for Russian serfs.

Saudi Arabia (Historical)

Ashraf Fayadh, a Saudi poet, was imprisoned for eight years and lashed 800 times for apostasy in 2016, a sentence later replaced by prison and fines in 2020.

Against Enslaved People

Whipping was a pervasive and brutal form of discipline imposed upon enslaved individuals, particularly in the United States and other colonial contexts, serving as a tool of oppression and control.

United States: Routinely carried out by slave owners and their overseers. Slave "patrolers," an early form of police, were authorized to whip slaves violating slave codes. President George Washington approved of the whipping of enslaved people.
Symbol of Oppression: Historian Michael Dickman noted that the whip was a "physical manifestation of their oppression under slavery."
"Whipped Peter" (1863): A widely circulated photograph of an enslaved man named Gordon, showing severe welts on his back from whipping, ignited anti-slavery sentiment during the Civil War.
Brazil: Public flogging of slaves was also depicted in historical artworks, such as those by German painter Johann Moritz Rugendas.

Military Discipline

In the 18th and 19th centuries, flagellation was a common disciplinary measure in European armies and navies, used to enforce military codes among common soldiers.

United States

American Revolutionary War: The legal limit on lashes for soldiers was raised from 39 to 100 by Congress.
U.S. Navy (Pre-1850): Captains had wide discretion, with some awarding 100 or more lashes. In 1815, a limit of twelve lashes was imposed for captains, with more severe cases requiring court-martial.
Abolition (1850): Prompted by Senator John P. Hale and inspired by Herman Melville's vivid descriptions in White Jacket and Moby-Dick, the U.S. Congress banned flogging on all U.S. ships in September 1850. Military flogging in the U.S. Army was abolished on August 5, 1861.

United Kingdom

"The English Vice": Flagellation, including caning, spanking, and whipping, was so common it was sometimes referred to as "the English vice."
Royal Navy: Flogging was a routine disciplinary measure, often using "knittles" or the cat o' nine tails. Between 1790 and 1820, the average was 19.5 lashes per man. Severe cases involved being "flogged around the fleet," with hundreds of lashes divided among multiple ships.
British Army (Napoleonic Wars): Maximum sentences reached 1,200 lashes, capable of permanent disability or death, though such extreme punishments were rare. Historian Charles Oman criticized the "wicked cruelty" of the code, noting its brutalizing effect on soldiers.
Northern Ireland (1922-1973): The Special Powers Act of 1922, known as the "Flogging Act," allowed whipping for offenses like firearms violations. Frank Morris, an IRA member, recalled receiving 15 "strokes of the cat" in 1942.
King's German Legion (KGL): German units in British pay did not practice flogging, and their commanders sometimes refused to carry out such punishments on British soldiers.
Abolition Debate (1879): A motion to abolish flogging in the Royal Navy was debated in the House of Commons, famously involving a request to bring a cat o' nine tails to the library for members to inspect. The motion passed, leading to the eventual decline of the practice.

France

During the French Revolutionary Wars, the French Army ceased floggings, opting for death penalties or other severe corporal punishments instead.

Australian Penal Colonies

Flagellation was a prominent form of punishment in British penal colonies in early colonial Australia, serving as a primary disciplinary tool for convicts.

Context: Since convicts were already imprisoned, other forms of punishment like hard labor or flagellation were used for offenses committed within the colonies. British law forbade combining corporal and capital punishment.
Method: Typically involved a single whip or the cat o' nine tails. The offender's upper body was bared, and they were suspended by the wrists from a tripod ("the triangle"), stretching the skin and intensifying pain.
Medical Observation: A doctor observed the prisoner, primarily to determine consciousness. If the prisoner fainted, the whipping would pause until revival, then resume.
Female Convicts: Women were also subjected to flogging, both on convict ships and in colonies, usually limited to 40 lashes per session, administered in the same manner as for males.
Public Humiliation: Floggings were public events, intended to inflict pain, humiliate offenders, and assert authority.
Post-Flogging Care: The lacerated back was often rinsed with brine, a crude and painful disinfectant.
Last Recorded Instance: The last person flogged in Australia was William John O'Meally in 1958 at Melbourne's Pentridge Prison.

Religious Dimensions

Ancient Rituals

In ancient civilizations, flagellation was integrated into various religious festivals and initiation rites, often symbolizing purification, fertility, or devotion.

Lupercalia (Ancient Rome): During this festival, young men would run through streets, whipping people with thongs cut from sacrificed goat hides. Women would seek these blows, believing they aided conception or ensured easy childbirth.
Dies Sanguinis (Cybele Cult): The eunuch priests of the goddess Cybele, known as galli, would self-flog until bleeding during this annual festival.
Greco-Roman Mystery Religions & Spartan Cults: Ritual flagellation was sometimes part of initiation ceremonies in Greco-Roman mystery religions and the Spartan cult of Artemis Orthia.

Christian Traditions

Within Christianity, flagellation holds significance both as a historical event (the Flagellation of Christ) and as a practice of self-mortification, evolving from public displays to private penance.

The Flagellation of Christ: Refers to the episode in the Passion of Christ preceding Jesus' crucifixion, illustrating immense suffering.
Mortification of the Flesh: Practiced by members of various Christian denominations since the Great Schism (1054). The instrument of penance is often called a "discipline," a knotted cord whip used during private prayer.
Flagellants (13th-16th centuries): Groups of Roman Catholics who engaged in extreme public self-mortification, beating and whipping each other while preaching repentance. These demonstrations were often morbid and disorderly, leading to suppression by authorities. They reemerged periodically, notably during the Black Plague (1348) as a means of purifying oneself from sin, though Pope Clement VI later condemned them as a cult.
Protestant Reformers: Martin Luther regularly practiced self-flagellation before leaving the Roman Catholic Church. Sarah Osborn, a Congregationalist writer, also used it to remind herself of sin.
Oxford Movement (Anglican Communion): Self-flagellation using the discipline became "quite common" among members of this 19th-century movement.
Catholic Saints and Modern Practice: St. Thérèse of Lisieux, a 19th-century Discalced Carmelite nun, practiced voluntary corporal mortification but emphasized loving acceptance of daily sufferings. Some members of strict monastic orders and the Catholic lay organization Opus Dei still practice mild self-flagellation using the discipline. Pope John Paul II was also known to have regularly taken the discipline.

Islamic Perspectives

In Islam, flagellation is sanctioned under Sharia law as both a prescribed (hadd) and discretionary (ta'zir) punishment for various offenses, and also features in some Shia religious rituals.

Judicial Flagellation (Sharia)

Scope: Sharia law encompasses not only religious obligations but also criminal and civil matters. Flogging is a prescribed punishment (hadd) for offenses such as fornication, alcohol consumption, and slander, and a discretionary punishment (ta'zir) for many other violations, including gender interaction laws.
Typical Punishments:
- 80 lashes for false accusation of adultery or fornication (qadhf).
- 40 to 80 lashes for drinking alcohol, depending on the legal school.
Procedure: Punishments are typically carried out in public. Lashes are often administered with the Quran held under one arm to minimize the swing and serve as a legislative reminder. They are not intended to leave permanent scars, and high numbers of lashes may be given in batches to reduce harm.
Historical Application: Traditionally, stringent restrictions meant hudud punishments were rarely applied. However, the Islamic revival in the late 20th century led to the reinstatement of lashing in many Muslim countries, often disregarding traditional strictures.
Contemporary Application: As of 2013, about a dozen Muslim-majority countries had made hudud applicable, including Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and northern Nigeria.

Shia Islam (Self-Flagellation)

Tatbir: Some Shia Muslims practice self-flagellation (tatbir) as a voluntary religious ritual. This is not for mortification of the flesh in the Christian sense, but to commemorate the suffering and martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali.
Muharram Processions: In Shia communities worldwide (e.g., India, Pakistan, Iraq, Lebanon), during the month of Muharram, participants mourn Husayn's martyrdom and may engage in flogging with knives, blades, and chains, often involving bloodletting.
Controversy: This practice is controversial and has been prohibited by high-ranking Shia scholars (marjas) like Ali Khamenei and Ali al-Sistani. Nevertheless, it continues among some Shi'ite men and boys.

As a Sexual Practice

BDSM Context

Flagellation is also incorporated into sexual practices within the context of BDSM (Bondage, Discipline, Sadism, Masochism). In this setting, the intensity of the beating is typically far less severe than that used for punitive purposes, focusing instead on sensory experience and consensual power dynamics.

Historical Erotic Flagellation

Anecdotal accounts suggest the voluntary use of binding or whipping as a prelude or substitute for sex dating back to the 14th century. More explicit records of erotic flagellation appear from the 1590s, evidenced by epigrams and references to "flogging schools" in 17th-century English literature. Visual evidence, such as mezzotints from the 1600s, also depicts scenes of flagellation in an erotic context.

Literary Depictions

The 1749 novel Fanny Hill by John Cleland notably features a flagellation scene. This publication was followed by numerous other works, such as Fashionable Lectures: Composed and Delivered with Birch Discipline (c. 1761), which advertised services involving rods and cat o' nine tails, further illustrating the presence of erotic flagellation in historical popular culture.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Flagellation" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about flagellation while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

richard i of england

assessment of kidney function

howard hayes scullard

counterterrorism

arithmetic

los angeles unified school district

6th army france

john philipps kenyon

patrilineality

war of the league of cambrai

References

James E. Baldwin (2012), Prostitution, Islamic Law and Ottoman Societies, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 55, pp. 117â52

Tierney, John j. (1909). "Flagellation". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

McKee, Christopher, A Gentlemanly and Honorable Profession The Creation of the U.S.Naval Officer Corps, 1794â1815, (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md.,1991), p. 243

Parker, Hershel, Herman Melville A Biography Volume 1, 1819â1851 (Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press 1996) p. 262

Anderson, Charles Roberts, editor, Journal of A Cruise to the Pacific Ocean, 1842â1844, in the Frigate United States With Notes on Herman Melville (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1937), p. 8.

Knight, Rodger, The Pursuit of Victory The Life and Achievements of Horatio Nelson(Basic Books, New York, 2005), pp. 475â476

Hughes, Ted, "Wilfred Owen's Photographs", Lupercal, 1960. See also Stanford, Jane, That Irishman: the Life and Times of John O'Connor Power, 2011, pp. 79â80.

McCluskey, Fergal, (2013), The Irish Revolution 1912â23: Tyrone, Four Courts Press, Dublin, p. 127, ISBN 9781846822995

Use of sharia by country (map)

Fashionable Lectures Composed and Delivered with Birch Discipline (c. 1761) British Library Rare Books collection

A full list of references for this article are available at the Flagellation Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not legal, historical, or sociological advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional academic research, legal consultation, or expert analysis in history, sociology, or religious studies. Always refer to primary sources, peer-reviewed academic literature, and consult with qualified professionals for specific inquiries or in-depth understanding. Never disregard professional academic or legal advice because of something you have read on this website.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

The Scourge of History

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Flagellation 📖

📚 Core Concept

🎯 Target Areas and Variations

⚖️ Terminological Nuances

Implements of Discipline 🛠️

🔗 Specialized Instruments

Contemporary Judicial Use ⚖️

🌐 Global Overview

🇬🇧 British Colonial Legacy

🕌 Islamic Law Jurisdictions

Historical Applications 🏛️

📜 Ancient Traditions

Judaism

Roman Empire

🕰️ Medieval to Modern Eras

England

French Revolution

Russian Empire

Saudi Arabia (Historical)

⛓️ Against Enslaved People

⚔️ Military Discipline

United States

United Kingdom

France

🇦🇺 Australian Penal Colonies

Religious Dimensions 🙏

🏛️ Ancient Rituals

✝️ Christian Traditions

☪️ Islamic Perspectives

Judicial Flagellation (Sharia)

Shia Islam (Self-Flagellation)

As a Sexual Practice 🎭

🔗 BDSM Context

📜 Historical Erotic Flagellation

📖 Literary Depictions

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Flagellation

Core Concept

Target Areas and Variations

Terminological Nuances

Implements of Discipline

Specialized Instruments

Contemporary Judicial Use

Global Overview

British Colonial Legacy

Islamic Law Jurisdictions

Historical Applications

Ancient Traditions

Medieval to Modern Eras

Against Enslaved People

Military Discipline

Australian Penal Colonies

Religious Dimensions

Ancient Rituals

Christian Traditions

Islamic Perspectives

As a Sexual Practice

BDSM Context

Historical Erotic Flagellation

Literary Depictions

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice