What is the fundamental definition of a general strike?

A general strike is a strike action where participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. These actions can encompass rallies, marches, boycotts, civil disobedience, and non-payment of taxes, though care workers might sometimes be excluded.

What ancient traditions are considered precursors to the concept of a general strike?

Ancient precursors to the general strike include the Jewish traditions of the Sabbatical and Jubilee years, which involved debt relief and land redistribution, as well as the *secessio plebis* during the Roman Republic. These historical events involved collective withdrawal from normal activities to achieve social or political aims.

Who proposed early conceptions of the general strike during the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment?

Early conceptions of the general strike were proposed during the Renaissance by Étienne de La Boétie, and during the Age of Enlightenment by Jean Meslier and Honoré Gabriel Riqueti. Their ideas contributed to the intellectual groundwork for later, more systematic formulations of the concept.

How did the French Revolution influence the development of the general strike concept?

During the French Revolution, radicals like Jean-Paul Marat, Sylvain Maréchal, and Constantin François de Chassebœuf adopted the idea of the general strike. Chassebœuf, in particular, proposed a strike involving workers, merchants, and industrialists to challenge government agents, advocating for 'the People' to act against those who did not contribute.

Who is credited with formulating the modern concept of the general strike, and what were his key proposals?

William Benbow, a British radical shoemaker, is credited with formulating the modern concept of the general strike. He proposed a 'Grand National Holiday' where workers would cease work for a month, supported financially by contributions from the wealthy, and establish workers' councils to manage society and enact reforms.

What was the core idea behind William Benbow's 'Grand National Holiday' proposal?

Benbow's 'Grand National Holiday' was a proposal for a month-long cessation of work by the productive classes, supported by workers' savings and contributions from the wealthy. It also included plans for workers' councils and a congress to implement societal reforms, aiming for a significant societal shift through collective action.

How did the Chartist movement interact with William Benbow's concept of the general strike?

Following the passage of the Reform Act and a decline in radical movements, the nascent Chartist movement adopted Benbow's platform for a 'national holiday.' They planned such a strike for August 1839, but it was ultimately abandoned after Benbow's arrest.

What event is considered the first general strike in a capitalist country, and where did it occur?

The first general strike in a capitalist country occurred in April 1842 in Britain. This widespread action began in the coal mines of Staffordshire and quickly spread to factories and mills across the nation.

What was the outcome of the 1842 general strike in Britain?

The 1842 general strike, initially focused on wages and working conditions, became associated with the Chartists and took on a revolutionary character. However, it was ultimately suppressed by government forces, leading to arrests and a return to work for most participants.

When and why did the first Catalan general strike occur?

The first Catalan general strike took place in 1855. It erupted after the new Spanish authorities prohibited freedom of association and work stoppages, following an earlier period of labor unrest during the Spanish Revolution of 1854.

How did W.E.B. Du Bois interpret the actions of enslaved people during the American Civil War in relation to general strikes?

W.E.B. Du Bois described the mass escape of enslaved people from Southern plantations to Union territory during the American Civil War as a 'general strike.' This interpretation suggested a collective withdrawal of labor that significantly impacted the Confederacy, though it has been debated by other scholars.

What were the main points of debate regarding the general strike within the First International?

Within the First International, debates centered on the purpose of the general strike. French delegates saw it as a tool for coordinating strike actions, while Karl Marx viewed it as a means to build class consciousness. Later, César De Paepe proposed it to prevent war, a notion Marx rejected, while Mikhail Bakunin advocated for a revolutionary general strike to overthrow capitalism and the state.

What was the anarcho-syndicalist perspective on the role and goal of the general strike?

Anarcho-syndicalism viewed the general strike as a revolutionary instrument to overthrow capitalism and establish workers' control over the means of production. It was seen as the primary tactic for achieving a stateless, socialist society built on worker self-management.

What was the significance of the May 1, 1886, general strike in the US and the subsequent Haymarket affair?

The nationwide general strike on May 1, 1886, organized by the International Working People's Association (IWPA) for the eight-hour day, was a major event. The subsequent Haymarket affair, a riot that led to the execution of several organizers, cemented May 1 as International Workers' Day and significantly influenced the spread of revolutionary syndicalism.

How did the French General Confederation of Labour (CGT) contribute to the spread of revolutionary syndicalism?

The French CGT was the first major trade union to adopt the revolutionary general strike into its platform. Their successful campaign for the eight-hour day, culminating in a general strike, led to reduced working hours and the introduction of the weekend, thereby accelerating the spread of revolutionary syndicalism globally.

What were the key disagreements about the general strike within the Second International?

The Second International was divided on the general strike. Socialists generally embraced electoral politics and opposed using the general strike to prevent war, fearing state repression, while anarchists supported it as a revolutionary tool for social transformation.

What was Rosa Luxemburg's perspective on the general strike within the context of the Second International?

Rosa Luxemburg, a prominent socialist, argued in support of the political general strike as an effective instrument for obtaining political concessions from the state. Her views contrasted with many German delegates who were apprehensive about state repression.

What was the core disagreement between Errico Malatesta and Pierre Monatte at the 1907 Amsterdam Congress regarding the general strike?

At the 1907 Amsterdam Congress, Errico Malatesta criticized the general strike as a 'magic weapon' and questioned its effectiveness against state militaries, while Pierre Monatte, a proponent of anarcho-syndicalism, upheld its central role in overthrowing capitalism and establishing a new society.

What made the May 1968 events in France a particularly notable general strike?

The May 1968 events in France constituted the largest general strike in an advanced industrial country, involving eleven million workers for two weeks. This widespread action significantly impacted the economy and nearly led to the collapse of the de Gaulle government.

How did the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 affect the legality and practice of general strikes in the United States?

The Taft-Hartley Act, passed in 1947, outlawed solidarity actions between unions, effectively making traditional general strikes illegal in the US. This led to a shift in practice, with 'general strike' often referring to periodic days of mass action rather than prolonged, multi-union work stoppages.

What are the two primary forms of general strike identified in the text?

The text identifies two primary forms of general strike: the political strike, which aims for political and economic reform within the existing system, and the revolutionary strike, which seeks to overthrow capitalism and the state through social revolution.

What was the Industrial Workers of the World's (IWW) theoretical goal for the general strike?

According to IWW theory, the ultimate goal of the general strike was to displace capitalists and transfer control of the means of production to the workers, thereby achieving industrial democracy. This involved workers occupying and operating their workplaces.

What role did conventional strikes play in Wobbly (IWW) theory?

In Wobbly theory, conventional strikes were seen as important weapons for improving wages, hours, and working conditions. They also served as crucial training for workers to understand the class struggle and prepare for an eventual general strike aimed at achieving industrial democracy.

What was the purpose of the 1927 general strike called by the IWW in protest of the Sacco and Vanzetti executions?

The IWW called for a three-day nationwide walkout in 1927 to protest the execution of anarchists Ferdinando Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. This action notably led to a high participation rate in the Walsenburg coal district of Colorado, contributing to the Colorado coal strike of 1927.

What was the significance of the 1926 United Kingdom general strike?

The 1926 United Kingdom general strike began in the coal industry and involved approximately 1.75 million workers, primarily in transport and steel sectors. Although it was ultimately suppressed by the government, it was a major industrial conflict.

What were the Seattle General Strike and the Winnipeg General Strike in 1919?

The Seattle General Strike and the Winnipeg General Strike were significant general strikes that occurred in 1919 in North America. The Seattle strike was called by the Seattle Central Labor Union, affiliated with the AFL, while the Winnipeg strike was a major labor uprising in Canada.

What was the American Federation of Labor's (AFL) official position on general strikes in 1919?

In June 1919, the AFL national organization passed resolutions opposing the general strike and amended its constitution to require authorization from national officers for any central labor union strike vote. This was intended to prevent future general strikes like those seen in Seattle and Winnipeg.

What is a Hartal, as used in the context of civil disobedience?

A Hartal is a form of civil disobedience and mass protest, often involving a complete shutdown of workplaces, offices, shops, and courts of law, as promoted by Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian independence movement.

What did Gerhart Niemeyer mean by a general strike as a 'revolutionary exercise'?

Niemeyer described a general strike as a 'revolutionary exercise' when it was intended as a preparatory step for future societal transformation, rather than an immediate revolutionary act. It was seen as a means to build capacity for change over time.

What four levels of general strike did industrial unionists like Ralph Chaplin and Stephen Naft identify?

Industrial unionists Ralph Chaplin and Stephen Naft identified four escalating levels of general strike: a localized strike, an industry-wide strike, a nationwide strike, and finally, a revolutionary strike.

What was the recurring proposal regarding general strikes and international conflict within socialist and anarchist movements?

A recurring proposal, particularly supported by anarchists and some socialists, was to use the general strike as a tactic to prevent wars between nation-states. However, this proposal was consistently opposed by social democrats within the Second International.

What was the syndicalist vision for the outcome of a successful general strike?

Syndicalism envisioned that a successful general strike would lead to the abolition of capitalism and the state, establishing workers' control over the means of production and forming the basis for a new socialist society.

What does the image titled 'The Hand That Will Rule The World—One Big Union' represent in the context of syndicalism?

The image 'The Hand That Will Rule The World—One Big Union' symbolizes the syndicalist concept of a unified, powerful labor movement capable of achieving significant social and economic change through collective action. It visually represents the idea of workers controlling their destiny.

What was the role of a general strike in the 1989 events in Czechoslovakia?

In 1989, a general strike in Czechoslovakia played a crucial role in helping to topple the communist government, contributing significantly to the broader changes of the Velvet Revolution.

What was the political objective of the 1974 general strike by Ulster Unionists in Northern Ireland?

The 1974 general strike by Ulster Unionists in Northern Ireland aimed to prevent the implementation of the Sunningdale Agreement, which was intended to resolve the political conflict known as The Troubles.

What was the focus of the Tunisian general strike in June 2022?

In June 2022, Tunisian workers initiated a general strike that halted all transportation within the country, impacting land, sea, and air travel as part of broader protests.

What types of workers might be excluded from participating in a general strike?

General strikes may sometimes exclude care workers, such as teachers, doctors, and nurses, from participating in the action. This exclusion is often a strategic decision or a consideration of the essential nature of their roles.

What was the outcome of the 1855 Catalan general strike?

The 1855 Catalan general strike was ultimately suppressed by the Spanish government, leading to the suspension of the draft constitution of 1856. This suppression followed a period of labor unrest and prohibitions on freedom of association.

What was the 'dress rehearsal' William Benbow organized in 1832?

In 1832, William Benbow organized a demonstration of 100,000 people, which he considered a 'dress rehearsal' for his proposed month-long national holiday general strike. This event was part of his efforts to promote his radical ideas for societal change.

What specific legislation in the United States fundamentally changed the legality of general strikes?

The Taft-Hartley Act, passed in 1947 in the United States, fundamentally changed the legality of general strikes by outlawing solidarity actions between unions. This effectively rendered the traditional form of the general strike illegal.

What was the significance of the 1893 Belgian general strike?

The 1893 Belgian general strike, though halted to protect the workers' movement, was significant because it eventually led to the winning of universal manhood suffrage in Belgium.

What was the 'Red Week' of 1914 in Italy?

The 'Red Week' of 1914 in Italy was the culmination of a series of syndicalist-led general strikes. It was mobilized by the Italian Syndicalist Union (USI) and represented a peak of labor unrest and revolutionary syndicalist activity.

What was the primary goal of the 1909 Swedish general strike?

The 1909 Swedish general strike was undertaken by workers aiming to achieve certain demands, but it ultimately failed. Its failure accelerated the split between syndicalists and social-democratic unions, leading to the formation of the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden (SAC).

What was the 'Tragic Week' in Spain in 1909?

The 'Tragic Week' in Spain in 1909 refers to a general strike called by the Catalan syndicalist union Solidaridad Obrera against conscription for the Spanish invasion of Morocco. This strike briefly brought Barcelona under workers' control before its suppression.

What was the 'Bienio Rosso' in Italy?

The 'Bienio Rosso,' or 'Two Red Years,' refers to a period in Italy following World War I marked by intense social conflict and labor unrest, including factory occupations and strikes, which were influenced by syndicalist ideas.

How has the general strike evolved as a tool for mass protest in the US and Europe since the mid-20th century?

Since the Taft-Hartley Act, the general strike in the US and Europe has evolved into a tool for mass economic protest, often coordinated with electoral actions and other forms of civil disobedience. It signifies a broader form of protest beyond traditional labor solidarity.

What distinction did Niemeyer make regarding general strikes as a 'revolutionary exercise'?

Niemeyer distinguished a general strike as a 'revolutionary exercise' by its intent to serve as a preparatory step for future societal transformation, rather than an immediate revolutionary act. It was seen as a means to build capacity for change over time.

What was the IWW's ultimate aim for the general strike in achieving industrial democracy?

The IWW's ultimate aim for the general strike was to displace capitalists and transfer control of the means of production to the workers, thereby achieving industrial democracy. This involved workers occupying and operating their workplaces democratically.

What specific criticism did Errico Malatesta level against the general strike?

Errico Malatesta criticized the general strike as a 'magic weapon' that was insufficient for fighting state militaries and could lead to workers being starved out during industrial disputes. He questioned its practical effectiveness against state power.

What were the two main tactical issues that led to the division and ejection of anarchists from the Second International?

The two main tactical issues causing division were electoral politics, which socialists embraced and anarchists opposed, and the use of the general strike to prevent war, which anarchists supported and socialists refused to endorse. These fundamental disagreements led to the expulsion of anarchists.

General Strike Wiki: The Anatomy of a General Strike: A Comprehensive Analysis

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Historical Context

Precursors and Early Concepts

The concept of a general strike has roots in ancient traditions like the Jewish Sabbatical and Jubilee years, and the Roman Republic's secessio plebis. Early modern thinkers like Étienne de La Boétie and Jean Meslier proposed similar ideas. During the French Revolution, radicals like Jean-Paul Marat and Sylvain Maréchal advocated for widespread societal work stoppages as a tool for change.

Key figures and their contributions:

Constantin François de Chassebœuf: Proposed a strike involving all useful professions against government agents.
Thomas Attwood & Louis Auguste Blanqui: Further developed early concepts of the general strike.
William Benbow: Formulated the idea in 1832 with his pamphlet Grand National Holiday and Congress of the Productive Classes, proposing worker-funded holidays and elected councils.

Industrial Revolution & Chartism

The early Industrial Revolution saw worker unrest, with ill-defined strikes. The 1835 Philadelphia General Strike achieved a ten-hour workday. The Chartist movement in Britain adopted Benbow's general strike platform, planning a "national holiday" in 1839, though it was suppressed. The 1842 general strike in Britain, starting in Staffordshire coal mines, spread widely, becoming the first in a capitalist country, but was ultimately crushed by government forces.

1842 British General Strike: A significant, though ultimately unsuccessful, uprising demanding better conditions and political reform.
1855 Catalan General Strike: The first in Spanish history, arising from labor unrest after initial progressive reforms.

International & Ideological Debates

The First International (IWA) debated the general strike extensively. Marx saw it as a tool for building class consciousness, while anarchists like Bakunin advocated for a revolutionary general strike to overthrow capitalism and the state. This ideological divide contributed to the International's eventual collapse. The rise of revolutionary syndicalism, particularly in France and Spain, further cemented the general strike as a core tactic.

Brussels Congress (1868): César De Paepe proposed general strikes to prevent war and transition to socialism.
Hague Congress (1872): Marx's faction expelled Bakunin's anti-authoritarian faction, highlighting the split over revolutionary tactics.
Anarcho-syndicalism: Advocated for unions to organize general strikes for social revolution and workers' control.

Formulating the Strategy

Benbow's Blueprint

William Benbow's 1832 pamphlet, Grand National Holiday and Congress of the Productive Classes, laid out a systematic plan for a general strike. He envisioned a month-long "holiday" funded by workers' savings and contributions, with elected workers' councils managing societal functions and electing delegates to a congress for reform.

Syndicalist Vision

Revolutionary syndicalism, championed by figures like Pierre Monatte and adopted by unions like the French CGT, viewed the general strike as the ultimate weapon to dismantle capitalism. The strategy involved workers occupying workplaces and taking control, educating themselves with the necessary skills to manage industry democratically post-revolution.

Objective: Overthrow capitalism and establish a stateless society with a socialist economy.
Mechanism: Unions organize general strikes, leading to workers' self-management of the means of production.
Training: Workers educate themselves in technical and managerial knowledge for post-strike governance.

Political vs. Revolutionary

Debates within socialist and anarchist movements distinguished between general strikes aimed at achieving political reforms within existing systems and those intended as revolutionary acts to overthrow capitalism and the state. This distinction often led to strategic disagreements, particularly within the Second International.

Manifestations of Action

Political Strikes

These strikes aim to achieve specific political and economic reforms. They often involve broad coalitions of labor, social, and political organizations, utilizing tactics beyond simple work stoppages, such as rallies, boycotts, and civil disobedience.

Revolutionary Strikes

The most radical form, aiming for a complete societal transformation by overthrowing capitalism and the state. This aligns with anarcho-syndicalist and some revolutionary socialist ideologies, envisioning a fundamental shift in power structures.

Symbolic Strikes

Often observed on International Workers' Day (May 1st), these strikes serve as demonstrations of global proletarian solidarity and a unified front against prevailing economic and political systems.

Ideological Divides

Socialists vs. Anarchists

A key debate within the Second International centered on the general strike. Socialists generally favored political participation and electoral strategies, viewing revolutionary general strikes with skepticism due to potential repression. Anarchists, conversely, championed the general strike as a primary tool for social revolution and the abolition of the state.

Effectiveness Debates

Critics, like Errico Malatesta, questioned the efficacy of the general strike against state military power and its ability to sustain workers through prolonged conflict. Others, like Bill Haywood of the IWW, saw it as a necessary step towards industrial democracy, achievable through organized industrial unions.

Legal Ramifications

In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 significantly altered the legal landscape, outlawing solidarity strikes and effectively making prolonged general strikes illegal. This shifted the practice towards shorter, coordinated days of mass action rather than sustained work stoppages.

Landmark Actions

May 1968, France

Considered the largest general strike in an advanced industrial country, involving eleven million workers for two weeks. It nearly toppled the de Gaulle government, demonstrating the profound disruptive power of widespread industrial action.

1926 UK General Strike

Initiated in the coal industry and spreading to transport and steel sectors, this strike involved 1.75 million workers. Despite its scale, it was ultimately suppressed by the government.

Seattle & Winnipeg (1919)

These North American strikes highlighted the growing power of organized labor. The Seattle General Strike, called by the AFL's Central Labor Union, and the Winnipeg General Strike demonstrated the potential for widespread industrial action, though the AFL later moved to curb such activities.

Velvet Revolution (1989)

In Czechoslovakia, a general strike played a pivotal role in the peaceful overthrow of the communist government, showcasing the general strike's potential as a catalyst for political change.

Scholarly Foundations

Key Texts and Authors

The study of general strikes draws from extensive historical and theoretical works. Scholars like William Benbow, Karl Marx, Mikhail Bakunin, Ralph Chaplin, and historians such as Philip S. Foner and Gerhart Niemeyer have significantly contributed to understanding its origins, evolution, and strategic implications.

Adams, Matthew S. (2018). "Anarchism and the First International".
Carpenter, Niles (1921). "William Benbow and the Origin of the General Strike".
Damier, Vadim (2009). Anarcho-syndicalism in the 20th Century.
Dubofsky, Melvyn (2000). We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World.
Foner, Philip S. (1997, 1998). History of the Labor Movement in the United States (Vols. 1, 4).
Graham, Robert (2018). "Anarchism and the First International".
Mather, F. C. (1974). "The General Strike of 1842".
Niemeyer, Gerhart (1966). "The Second International: 1889–1914".
Nomad, Max (1966). "The Anarchist Tradition".
Prothero, Iorwerth (1974). "William Benbow and the Concept of the "General Strike"".
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (2014). "General strike".
van der Walt, Lucien & Schmidt, Michael (2009). Black Flame: The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism.
Zimmer, Annette (2018). "General Strike".

Related Concepts

Understanding the general strike necessitates exploring related concepts within labor history and political theory. These include direct action, civil disobedience, syndicalism, industrial unionism, and the broader labor movement.

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References

Carpenter 1921, p. 499; Prothero 1974, p. 147.

Prothero 1974, pp. 160â161; Spivak 2014, p. 9.

Carpenter 1921, pp. 491â492; Prothero 1974, pp. 133â134; Spivak 2014, p. 10.

Carpenter 1921, p. 497; Prothero 1974, pp. 133.

Carpenter 1921, p. 497; Prothero 1974, pp. 133; Spivak 2014, p. 10.

TuÃ±Ã³n de Lara 1977, pp. 67â68, 105.

TuÃ±Ã³n de Lara 1977, pp. 106â108.

TuÃ±Ã³n de Lara 1977, pp. 108â118.

Graham 2018, p. 332; Spivak 2014, p. 10.

Graham 2018, pp. 334â335; Spivak 2014, p. 10.

Graham 2018, p. 337; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, p. 155.

Graham 2018, p. 337; Nomad 1966, p. 69; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, pp. 154â155.

Graham 2018, p. 337; Nomad 1966, p. 69.

Spivak 2014, p. 11; Zimmer 2018, pp. 355â356.

Damier 2009, pp. 19â20; Niemeyer 1966, p. 100.

Damier 2009, pp. 17â18; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, p. 276.

Nomad 1966, p. 81; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, p. 276.

Nomad 1966, pp. 83â84; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, pp. 181â182.

Nomad 1966, pp. 85â86; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, p. 183.

Nomad 1966, p. 86; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, p. 183.

Nomad 1966, p. 87; van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, p. 216.

van der Walt & Schmidt 2009, pp. 23, 216â217.

Keith Laybourn, The General Strike of 1926 (1993)

Sheet Metal Workers' Journal, Amalgamated Sheet Metal Workers' International Alliance, Volumes 24â25, Chicago, Illinois, 1919, pages 265â267

Niemeyer 1966, pp. 99â100; Spivak 2014, p. 11.

Bill Haywood, The General Strike (Chicago, n.d.), pamphlet, published by Industrial Workers of the World, from a New York City speech delivered March 16, 1911.

A full list of references for this article are available at the General strike Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This document has been generated by an AI, drawing upon publicly available data. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to academic standards, the content is intended for educational purposes and may not encompass all nuances or the most current developments.

This is not professional advice. The information provided herein should not substitute for consultation with qualified historians, labor relations experts, or political scientists. Always consult primary sources and expert analysis for comprehensive understanding.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided.

The Anatomy of a General Strike

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Historical Context 📜

⏳ Precursors and Early Concepts

🏭 Industrial Revolution & Chartism

🌐 International & Ideological Debates

Formulating the Strategy 💡

✍️ Benbow's Blueprint

✊ Syndicalist Vision

⚖️ Political vs. Revolutionary

Manifestations of Action ⚖️

🎯 Political Strikes

💥 Revolutionary Strikes

📅 Symbolic Strikes

Ideological Divides 🗣️

⚔️ Socialists vs. Anarchists

🤔 Effectiveness Debates

📜 Legal Ramifications

Landmark Actions ⭐

🇫🇷 May 1968, France

🇬🇧 1926 UK General Strike

🇺🇸 Seattle & Winnipeg (1919)

🇨🇿 Velvet Revolution (1989)

Scholarly Foundations 📚

📖 Key Texts and Authors

🔗 Related Concepts

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Historical Context

Precursors and Early Concepts

Industrial Revolution & Chartism

International & Ideological Debates

Formulating the Strategy

Benbow's Blueprint

Syndicalist Vision

Political vs. Revolutionary

Manifestations of Action

Political Strikes

Revolutionary Strikes

Symbolic Strikes

Ideological Divides

Socialists vs. Anarchists

Effectiveness Debates

Legal Ramifications

Landmark Actions

May 1968, France

1926 UK General Strike

Seattle & Winnipeg (1919)

Velvet Revolution (1989)

Scholarly Foundations

Key Texts and Authors

Related Concepts

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice