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The Divine Essence

An academic exploration of the supreme being across theological, philosophical, and cultural perspectives.

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Introduction

Supreme Being

In monotheistic traditions, God is predominantly understood as the supreme being, the creator, and the primary focus of faith. Conversely, in polytheistic systems, a 'god' is defined as a spiritual entity believed to govern or influence aspects of the universe or life, often receiving worship.[2] The belief in the existence of at least one deity, who may actively engage with the world, is termed theism.[3]

Diverse Conceptions

The conceptualization of God varies significantly across cultures and belief systems. Philosophers and theologians have extensively debated arguments for and against God's existence.[4] Atheism fundamentally rejects the belief in any deity, while agnosticism posits that God's existence is either unknown or unknowable. Many adherents derive knowledge of the divine through faith, often viewing God as the ultimate entity of existence.[1]

Cosmic Role

God is frequently perceived as the ultimate cause of all existence, serving as the creator, sustainer, and sovereign ruler of the universe. This entity is often considered incorporeal and transcendent, existing independently of the material cosmos.[1][5][6] While pantheism identifies God with the universe itself, other theological perspectives maintain God's distinct, transcendent nature.[7][8][9]

Etymology and Usage

Linguistic Origins

The earliest written form of the Germanic word for 'God' appears in the 6th-century Gothic Bible translation, Codex Argenteus. The term originates from Proto-Germanic *\u01e5u\u0111an, likely derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *\u01f5hau(\u0259)-, meaning 'to call' or 'to invoke'.[12] Initially neuter in Germanic languages, the word acquired a masculine grammatical form during the Christianization of Germanic peoples.[13]

Proper Nouns and Titles

In English, 'God' is capitalized when used as a proper noun, signifying the supreme being in monotheistic religions. This capitalization distinguishes it from the generic term 'god' referring to any deity.[14][15] The term 'God' serves as a common translation across diverse religious traditions, despite significant differences in their specific conceptions.[15]

Names and Attributes

In Hebrew scripture, God is known by the personal name Yahweh, possibly originating from an Edomite or Midianite deity adopted into Israelite religion.[16] Many English Bible translations render this as "the LORD".[17] Arabic traditions use "Allah" for God, distinct from the general term 'ilāh' for any deity.[19][20][21] Hinduism recognizes Brahman as a supreme reality, often manifested through various deities, while Sikhism uses "Waheguru" ('Wonderful Teacher') to refer to God.[27][22]

Conceptions of God

Philosophical Arguments

The existence and nature of God are central topics in theology and the philosophy of religion. Arguments for God's existence often draw from epistemology and ontology, considering concepts of perfection and being.[4] Ontological arguments, like those by Anselm and Descartes, rely on a priori reasoning.[35][36] Cosmological arguments link the universe's origin to a divine cause, while teleological arguments infer God from the universe's perceived design.[37]

Key arguments include:

  • Ontological Arguments: Based on a priori reasoning about God's nature (e.g., Anselm, Descartes).
  • Cosmological Arguments: Positing a first cause or necessary being for the universe's existence (e.g., Aquinas).
  • Teleological Arguments: Inferring a designer from the perceived complexity and order of the universe.
  • Argument from Beauty: Suggesting beauty in the universe points to a divine source.
  • Argument from Morality: Linking objective morality to the existence of God.

Counterarguments often involve the problem of evil, the limits of empirical evidence, and alternative naturalistic explanations.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44]

Attributes and Nature

Commonly ascribed divine attributes include omnipotence (all-powerful), omniscience (all-knowing), and omnibenevolence (all-good). These attributes raise philosophical questions, such as the problem of evil and the omnipotence paradox.[87][86] Some theological views, like Open Theism, propose limitations on divine omniscience, while process theology suggests God is affected by creation.[87] God is often considered incorporeal, transcendent, and the ground of all being.[1]

Oneness and Trinity

Monotheism emphasizes God's singular, unique nature, often viewing other deities as idolatrous.[61][62] Christianity posits God as a Trinity: Father, Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit, distinct persons sharing one divine essence.[65] Hinduism often integrates monotheistic and polytheistic elements, viewing Brahman as the supreme reality manifested in numerous deities, a concept sometimes termed polymorphic monotheism.[66] Henotheism and monolatry acknowledge a single primary deity while accepting the existence of others.[67][68]

Non-Theistic Perspectives

Rejection of Deities

Atheism, broadly defined, is the rejection of belief in deities.[46][47] Agnosticism holds that the truth value of claims about God, the divine, or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable.[48][49][50][51]

Buddhist and Jain Views

Certain Buddhist traditions are considered non-theistic, generally rejecting the concept of a creator deity, as critiqued in early Buddhist texts.[91][92] Jainism also typically rejects creationism, viewing souls and time as uncreated.[90] While some Buddhists believe in God, others deny or are unsure of God's existence.[96][97]

Eastern Philosophies

Taoism and Confucianism are often silent on the existence of creator gods. However, they incorporate ancestor veneration and the worship of revered figures like Confucius and Laozi, akin to devotional practices directed towards the divine.[98][99]

Relationship with Humanity

Worship and Prayer

Theistic traditions often mandate worship of God, viewing it as a fundamental aspect of human existence.[109][110] Worship is seen not as a need for God, but as beneficial for the worshipper.[111] Prayer is considered a soul's longing, an admission of weakness rather than a request.[112] Devotional practices include supplication, asking for forgiveness, and sacrifice, with God often perceived as forgiving.[113]

Divine Providence

Deism posits a God who created the universe but does not intervene in its affairs, perhaps due to lack of interest or awareness.[84] Pandeism suggests God became the universe after creation.[85] Divine providence refers to God's intervention, particularly extraordinary acts like miracles.[82][83]

Religious Pluralism

Approaches to reconciling differing religious claims include exclusivism (claiming sole access to truth), religious pluralism (acknowledging partial truth in other religions), and relativistic inclusivism (viewing all paths as equally valid). Syncretism, exemplified by the New Age movement, involves blending elements from various traditions.[116][117] The Baháʼí Faith emphasizes progressive revelation through divine manifestations across history.[116]

Epistemology of Faith

Fideism and Reason

Fideism suggests that faith is superior to reason in theological matters, as articulated in reformed epistemology. Some argue that the inherent risk in faith is valuable, contrasting with the certainty of scientific laws.[118] The concept of fitra in Islam refers to an innate intuition about God.[120] Confucianism posits that Heaven dictates the Way, implanted within humans as a universal foundation.[121]

Revelation and Nature

Revelation is understood as divine communication, often through prophets or angels. Al-Maturidi argued that revelation is necessary because human intellect can be diverted, and specific knowledge, like ritual practices, must be divinely imparted.[122] General revelation encompasses knowledge of God derived from studying nature, often termed the "Book of Nature".[124]

Evidentialism and Tradition

Evidentialism, championed by Richard Swinburne, posits that belief requires rational justification, contrasting with foundational beliefs.[126] Traditionalist theology emphasizes revelation over rationalization, leaving ambiguities in divine descriptions (like the "Hand of God") to God (tafwid), without questioning the 'how'.[128][129] Physico-theology uses reason to support theological concepts.[130]

Specific Characteristics

Titles and Names

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, God is referred to by various titles found in scripture, including Yahweh, Elohim ('God'), and El Shaddai ('God Almighty'). The phrase "I Am that I Am" is also significant.[131][132][133][134] Islamic tradition uses names like Al-Rahman ('Most Compassionate') and Al-Rahim ('Most Merciful').[135]

Gender and Form

The gender of God is often viewed metaphorically, as God transcends physical form. While biblical texts predominantly use male pronouns and paternal symbolism, exceptions exist, referencing God with maternal or nurturing imagery.[139][140] Sikhism considers God genderless, though scriptural language may use masculine terms due to linguistic conventions.[141]

Depictions and Symbolism

Early representations of God were often symbolic, like the Hand of God. Over time, Western art developed human-like depictions, typically of an elderly male figure, particularly for God the Father. Islamic tradition avoids anthropomorphic imagery, favoring calligraphy of divine names.[143][155] Zoroastrianism historically depicted Ahura Mazda but later ceased the practice, using symbols instead.[143]

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References

References

  1.  Plantinga, Alvin. "God, Arguments for the Existence of", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
  2.  Ann Thomson; Bodies of Thought: Science, Religion, and the Soul in the Early Enlightenment, 2008, page 54.
  3.  Worman, J. H., "Pantheism", in Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, Volume 1, John McClintock, James Strong (Eds), Harper & Brothers, 1896, pp. 616–624.
  4.  "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
  5.  Kidder, David S.; Oppenheim, Noah D. The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam confidently with the cultured class, p. 364.
  6.  Baháʾuʾlláh, Joyce Watanabe (2006). A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God : ... p. x.
  7.  Assmann, Jan. Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies, Stanford University Press 2005, p. 59.
  8.  Lichtheim, M. (1980). Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol. 2, p. 96.
  9.  Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction". Journal of Law and Religion 3(2): 381–397.
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  18.  Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 16:1 (1988: Mar.).
  19.  Quran 51:56.
  20.  Rigopoulos, Antonio. The Life and Teachings of Sai Baba of Shirdi (1993), p. 372; Houlden, J. L. (Ed.), Jesus: The Complete Guide (2005), p. 390.
  21.  Halverson (2010, p. 36).
  22.  Halverson (2010, pp. 36–37).
  23.  Fiorenza, Francis Schüssler and Kaufman, Gordon D., "God", Ch 6, in Taylor, Mark C., ed., Critical Terms for Religious Studies (University of Chicago, 1998/2008), pp. 136–140.
  24.  Shaman, Nicholas J.; Saide, Anondah R.; and Richert, Rebekah A. "Dimensional structure of and variation in anthropomorphic concepts of God". Frontiers in psychology 9 (2018): 1425.
  25.  Arena Chapel, at the top of the triumphal arch, God sending out the angel of the Annunciation. See Schiller, I, figure 15.
A full list of references for this article are available at the God Wikipedia page

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