Who was Harald Hardrada, and what were his primary roles and periods of reign?

Harald Hardrada, also known as Harald III of Norway, was the King of Norway from 1046 until his death in 1066. He also unsuccessfully claimed the Danish throne until 1064 and the English throne in 1066. Before becoming king, he spent 15 years as a mercenary and military commander in Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire.

What epithet is Harald Hardrada most famously known by, and what does it mean?

Harald Hardrada is most famously known by the epithet 'Hardrada,' which originates from the Old Norse word 'harðráði.' This epithet has been translated in various ways, including 'hard in counsel,' 'tyrannical,' 'hard-ruler,' 'ruthless,' and 'severe.' The exact meaning is debated among scholars, with some favoring 'severe' and others 'resolute.'

What significant military roles did Harald Hardrada hold before becoming King of Norway?

Before ascending to the Norwegian throne, Harald Hardrada served as a mercenary and military commander for approximately 15 years. He was a captain in the army of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise in Kievan Rus' and later became the commander of the Byzantine Varangian Guard, fighting in numerous campaigns across the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Sicily, and the Balkans.

What nickname did Adam of Bremen give to Harald Hardrada?

Adam of Bremen, in his chronicle, referred to Harald Hardrada as the 'Thunderbolt of the North.' This epithet highlights his formidable military reputation and impact on the regions where he campaigned.

What event is often considered the end of the Viking Age, and what role did Harald Hardrada play in it?

The death of Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 is often considered the end of the Viking Age. His invasion of England marked one of the last major military expeditions of its kind by a Scandinavian ruler.

What are the various translations and interpretations of Harald Hardrada's epithet 'Hardrada'?

The Old Norse epithet 'harðráði,' commonly translated as 'Hardrada,' has been interpreted variously as 'hard in counsel,' 'tyrannical,' 'hard-ruler,' 'ruthless,' 'savage in counsel,' 'tough,' and 'severe.' While 'Hardrada' is the traditional Anglicization, scholars like Judith Jesch suggest it's a 'bastard Anglicisation' and prefer translations like 'severe' or 'resolute.'

What other epithet, meaning 'hair-beautiful,' is associated with Harald Hardrada in some sources, and why is this significant?

In several sources, particularly those associated with the British Isles and predating later Icelandic sagas, Harald Hardrada is given epithets derived from the Old Norse 'hárfagri,' meaning 'hair-beautiful.' This is significant because it contrasts with the more common 'Hardrada' and suggests he may have been known by different names or that the 'fairhair' epithet was applied to him, potentially challenging the traditional narrative of an earlier King Harald Fairhair.

What is the modern historical interpretation regarding the epithet 'Harald Fairhair' and its connection to Harald Hardrada?

Modern historians have debated the association of the epithet 'Harald Fairhair' with Harald Hardrada. While earlier scholars assumed it was an error by Insular historians, current views favor the idea that Harald Hardrada was widely known as Harald Fairhair, and some even doubt the historical existence of the earlier King Harald Fairhair as depicted in sagas.

Where and approximately when was Harald Hardrada born?

Harald Hardrada was born in Ringerike, Norway, around the year 1015 (or possibly 1016).

Who were Harald Hardrada's parents, and what was his father's status?

Harald Hardrada's parents were Sigurd Syr, a petty king of Ringerike and a wealthy chieftain in the Uplands region of Norway, and his second wife, Åsta Gudbrandsdatter.

How was Harald Hardrada related to Olaf Haraldsson (Saint Olaf)?

Harald Hardrada was the youngest of three half-brothers to King Olaf Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf), through their mother Åsta Gudbrandsdatter.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030, and what happened to Harald Hardrada afterward?

In the Battle of Stiklestad, Harald Hardrada fought alongside his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson in an attempt to reclaim the Norwegian throne. However, their forces were defeated by those loyal to the Danish king Cnut. Olaf was killed in the battle, and Harald was badly wounded, forcing him into exile.

Where did Harald Hardrada go after escaping the Battle of Stiklestad?

After escaping the Battle of Stiklestad, Harald Hardrada first hid in Eastern Norway to heal his wounds and then journeyed north to Sweden, eventually arriving in Kievan Rus' (also known as Gardariki) in the first half of 1031.

What military role did Harald assume in Kievan Rus'?

Upon arriving in Kievan Rus', Harald was welcomed by Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Recognizing Harald's military potential, Yaroslav appointed him as a captain of his forces.

To which major city and empire did Harald and his men travel after Kievan Rus'?

After serving in Kievan Rus', Harald and his force of around 500 men traveled south to Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire.

What elite military unit did Harald join in Constantinople?

In Constantinople, Harald and his companions joined the Varangian Guard, an elite military unit primarily serving as the emperor's bodyguard.

What was Harald's role in the campaigns against Arab pirates in the Mediterranean?

Harald first saw action in campaigns against Arab pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. He also participated in actions against pirate-supporting towns in Asia Minor.

What significant achievement is attributed to Harald in capturing Arab strongholds, according to his skald?

According to Harald's skald, Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, Harald participated in the capture of eighty Arab strongholds during his service in the East. Historians find this number plausible, suggesting that Harald and the Varangians may have been tasked with capturing specific castles or towns.

What nickname did Harald earn after the Battle of Ostrovo against the Bulgarian uprising?

After distinguishing himself in the Battle of Ostrovo in 1041 against a Bulgarian uprising, Harald earned the nickname 'Bulgar-burner' (ÍBolgara brennirí) from his skald.

What Byzantine military ranks did Harald reportedly receive, and what is the debate surrounding their significance?

Harald reportedly received the Byzantine ranks of 'manglabites' (possibly protospatharios) and 'spatharokandidatos.' There is debate among historians regarding the exact significance and hierarchy of these ranks, with some suggesting they were relatively low, as Harald reportedly did not express strong feelings about receiving them.

How did Harald Hardrada accumulate significant wealth during his time in the East?

Harald Hardrada accumulated significant wealth through spoils of war, participation in 'palace-plunder' (polutasvarf) during imperial successions or fund disbursements, and potentially through his military service and captured strongholds. He shipped much of this wealth back to Kievan Rus' for safekeeping.

What was Harald's relationship with Yaroslav the Wise's daughter, Elisiv, and their marriage?

Harald married Elisiv of Kiev, the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, around 1044/45. Their marriage was significant as Elisiv's siblings were married into prominent European royal families, indicating Harald's elevated status.

When and from where did Harald begin his journey back to Scandinavia?

Harald began his journey westwards from Novgorod (Holmgard) in early 1045, aiming to reclaim the Norwegian throne.

What was the political situation in Norway upon Harald's return, regarding Magnus the Good?

Upon Harald's return to Scandinavia around 1045-1046, the throne of Norway had been restored to Magnus the Good, the illegitimate son of Olaf Haraldsson. Magnus had also become king of Denmark.

What was the agreement reached between Harald and Magnus in 1046?

In 1046, Magnus the Good and Harald agreed to share the kingship of Norway. Harald also agreed to share half of his wealth with Magnus, who was in need of funds. This co-rule ended abruptly the following year when Magnus died.

What was Harald's long-term ambition regarding Denmark and the former North Sea Empire?

Harald aimed to re-establish Magnus's rule over Denmark and, in the long term, likely sought to restore the entire North Sea Empire established by Cnut the Great.

What was the impact of Harald's raid on Hedeby in 1049?

Harald's raid on Hedeby in 1049 resulted in the plundering and burning of this major Danish trade center. Hedeby never fully recovered from this destruction and was left desolate.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Niså in 1062, and why was it significant?

In the Battle of Niså on August 9, 1062, Harald Hardrada achieved a decisive naval victory over Sweyn II of Denmark, capturing 70 Danish ships. However, many Danish ships and men escaped, and the battle was costly, leading to a peace agreement later.

What did historian Knut Helle state about Harald's role in the unification of Norway?

According to historian Knut Helle, Harald Hardrada completed the first phase of Norway's 'national territorial unification' during his reign.

How did Harald deal with the opposition from Einar Thambarskelfir and the Earls of Lade?

Harald faced opposition from powerful families like the Earls of Lade, led by Einar Thambarskelfir. After initial confrontations and the murder of Einar by Harald's men, Harald eventually negotiated peace and secured the submission of the remaining descendants, consolidating his control over Northern Norway.

What were the key economic policies implemented during Harald's reign?

Harald's reign saw the institution of a Norwegian currency and a viable coin economy, which facilitated international trade. He also developed trade connections with Kievan Rus', the Byzantine Empire, Scotland, and Ireland.

What conflict did Harald have with Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen, and what was Harald's response?

Harald clashed with Archbishop Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen over church policies, including the use of funds from pilgrimages and the consecration of bishops. Harald asserted his authority by stating he knew 'no other archbishop or lord of Norway than the king himself,' a stance likened to that of a Byzantine despot.

What did Adam of Bremen report about Harald's naval expeditions into the northern seas?

Adam of Bremen reported that Harald Hardrada attempted extensive naval expeditions into the northern ocean, searching the boundaries of the known world and narrowly escaping back. This suggests Harald had an interest in exploration beyond his immediate territories.

On what basis did Harald claim the English throne?

Harald's claim to the English throne was based on a 1038 agreement between his predecessor, Magnus the Good, and the English king Harthacnut. This agreement stipulated that if either king died without an heir, the other would inherit his lands.

Who were the other potential claimants to the English throne during Edward the Confessor's reign?

Besides Harald Hardrada, other potential claimants to the English throne after Edward the Confessor's death included William, Duke of Normandy, and Sweyn II of Denmark.

Who was Tostig Godwinson, and why did he pledge allegiance to Harald?

Tostig Godwinson was the former Earl of Northumbria and the brother of the English king Harold Godwinson. He pledged his allegiance to Harald Hardrada in hopes of regaining his titles and lands, seeing Norway as the most suitable landing point for an invasion of England.

What was the estimated size of Harald's invasion force and fleet?

Harald's invasion force consisted of approximately 10,000 to 15,000 men transported on 240 to 300 longships.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Fulford?

The Battle of Fulford, fought on September 20, 1066, resulted in a decisive victory for Harald Hardrada and Tostig Godwinson over the English regional forces led by Earls Morcar of Northumbria and Edwin of Mercia. This victory led to the surrender of York to Harald's forces.

When did the Battle of Stamford Bridge occur, and how was Harald Hardrada killed?

The Battle of Stamford Bridge took place on September 25, 1066. Harald Hardrada was killed early in the battle, reportedly struck in the throat by an arrow while fighting aggressively without body armor.

How did Harald's death at Stamford Bridge impact the subsequent Norman invasion of England?

Harald's death and the exhaustion of Harold Godwinson's army after the Battle of Stamford Bridge significantly weakened England's defenses. The forced marches required of Harold's forces are seen as a key factor contributing to William the Conqueror's victory at the Battle of Hastings just weeks later.

How is Harald Hardrada described physically in historical accounts, such as by Snorri Sturluson?

Snorri Sturluson described Harald Hardrada as physically larger and stronger than other men, with light hair, a light beard, a long mustache, and one eyebrow situated higher than the other. He was also noted for having large hands and feet and a tall stature, possibly measuring five ells in height, though the historical accuracy of this description is uncertain.

What Viking Age sports and activities is Harald said to have mastered?

According to the sagas, Harald Hardrada mastered numerous activities considered sports in the Viking Age, including poetry, brewing, horse riding, swimming, skiing, shooting, rowing, and playing the harp.

What was Harald Hardrada's religious inclination, and how was it influenced by his time in Eastern Europe?

Harald Hardrada displayed a religious inclination towards Christianity, publicly aligning himself with the Church. His time spent in Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire influenced him, leading to the introduction of a slightly different form of Christianity in Norway compared to the rest of Northern Europe.

What symbol did Harald use as his banner, and what was its original association?

Harald Hardrada used the Raven banner as his royal standard. This banner was originally a symbol associated with the Norse god Odin, who was depicted with two ravens named Huginn and Muninn.

Who was Harald Hardrada's first wife, and when did they marry?

Harald Hardrada's first wife was Elisiv of Kiev, whom he married around 1044/45. She was the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise.

What children did Harald Hardrada have with Tora Torbergsdatter?

Harald Hardrada and Tora Torbergsdatter had at least two sons: Magnus II, who reigned as king of Norway from 1066 to 1069, and Olaf III, who reigned as king of Norway from 1067 to 1093.

Where was Harald Hardrada's body initially buried after his death?

After his death at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harald Hardrada's body was moved to Norway and initially buried at the Mary Church in Nidaros (modern-day Trondheim).

What is the modern historical interpretation regarding the epithet 'Harald Fairhair' and its connection to Harald Hardrada?

Modern historians have debated the association of the epithet 'Harald Fairhair' with Harald Hardrada. While earlier scholars assumed it was an error by Insular historians, current views favor the idea that Harald Hardrada was widely known as Harald Fairhair, and some even doubt the historical existence of the earlier King Harald Fairhair as depicted in sagas.

Where are the two monuments honoring Harald Hardrada located in Oslo, and what do they depict?

Two monuments honoring Harald Hardrada are located in Oslo. One is a bronze relief on granite by Lars Utne on Harald Hardrådes plass, raised in 1905. The second is a large relief by Anne Grimdalen on the western facade of Oslo City Hall, unveiled in 1950, both depicting Harald on horseback.

What was the nature of Harald's warfare against Sweyn II of Denmark from 1048 to 1064?

Harald engaged in near-constant warfare against Sweyn II of Denmark from 1048 until 1064. These campaigns primarily consisted of swift and violent raids on the Danish coasts, including the plundering of Jutland and the destruction of Hedeby.

What was the significance of Harald instituting a Norwegian currency and coin economy?

By instituting a Norwegian currency and coin economy, Harald enabled Norway to participate more effectively in international trade and likely secured substantial annual revenues for the crown. This move represented a significant step in developing Norway's economic infrastructure.

Harald Hardrada Wiki: The Saga of Harald Hardrada: From Exile to English Fields

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Epithets and Identity

Hardrada: The 'Severe Ruler'

Harald's most enduring epithet is the Old Norse Haraldr Sigurðarson, commonly translated as 'hard in counsel', 'tyrannical', 'hard-ruler', or 'severe'. While scholars debate the precise nuance, the term signifies a ruler known for his unyielding nature and strong will. This epithet, prevalent in later Icelandic sagas, reflects his formidable reputation.

Interestingly, earlier sources associated with the British Isles frequently refer to Harald using epithets derived from 'hair-beautiful' (Old Norse: hárfagri). This suggests a complex and possibly contested perception of his appearance and persona. Historians debate whether this reflects an error by Insular chroniclers or a genuine alternative name, potentially even one Harald himself favored, contrasting with the 'severe' moniker imposed by his later saga biographers.

Formative Years

Royal Lineage and Early Ambition

Born circa 1015 in Ringerike, Norway, Harald was the youngest son of Sigurd Syr, a powerful chieftain. Through his mother, Åsta Gudbrandsdatter, he was the half-brother of the future Saint Olaf Haraldsson. Even in youth, Harald displayed the traits of a determined individual with significant ambitions, looking up to Olaf as a role model.

The Battle of Stiklestad

At the tender age of fifteen, Harald fought alongside his half-brother Olaf in the pivotal Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. This battle, an attempt to reclaim the Norwegian throne lost to Danish King Cnut, ended in defeat and Olaf's death. Harald himself was wounded but demonstrated considerable military aptitude, foreshadowing his future exploits.

Years in Exile

Kievan Rus' and Military Service

Following the defeat at Stiklestad, Harald sought refuge in Kievan Rus' (known as Garðaríki). He entered the service of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, quickly rising to the rank of captain. During this period, Harald participated in campaigns against various rivals, including the Poles and potentially the Chudes and Pechenegs, honing his military skills.

The Varangian Guard

Around 1033-1034, Harald and his contingent of approximately 500 men journeyed to Constantinople, the heart of the Byzantine Empire. There, he joined the elite Varangian Guard, serving with distinction across the empire's frontiers. His campaigns spanned the Mediterranean against Arab pirates, inland Anatolia, Sicily, and the Balkan frontier against Bulgarians, earning him considerable wealth and the moniker "Bulgar-burner".

Amassing Fortune and Influence

Harald's service in the Byzantine military was lucrative. He amassed significant wealth, reportedly participating in three instances of "palace-plunder" (possibly during imperial successions or payouts), which he entrusted to Yaroslav the Wise for safekeeping. This fortune would later prove crucial in funding his claim to the Norwegian throne.

Ascension and Reign

Claiming the Norwegian Throne

Returning to Scandinavia in 1045-1046, Harald found Magnus the Good, son of Olaf, ruling Norway. Initially planning to challenge Magnus, Harald was instead invited to share the kingship, a pact that included Harald sharing his accumulated wealth. This co-rule was brief, ending with Magnus's death in 1047, leaving Harald as the sole King of Norway.

Consolidation of Power

Harald's reign focused on consolidating royal authority. He enforced a policy centralizing power by making the king the sole retainer of a private army (hird), diminishing the autonomy of local warlords. He faced opposition, notably from the powerful Earls of Lade, culminating in the death of Einar Thambarskelfir, which solidified Harald's control over regions like Trøndelag.

Economic and Religious Policies

Harald implemented significant economic reforms, establishing a royal monopoly on coin minting and fostering international trade through his established connections. He also advanced Christianity, importing clergy from Eastern Europe and overseeing church construction, though his methods sometimes clashed with the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, reflecting a distinctly Northern European approach to ecclesiastical affairs.

The Final Campaign

Claiming the English Crown

Harald harbored ambitions to restore the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great. Following the death of Edward the Confessor in January 1066, Harald accepted an alliance with Tostig Godwinson, the exiled brother of the new English King Harold Godwinson. Harald's claim was based on a prior agreement between Edward and Magnus the Good.

In September 1066, Harald assembled a formidable fleet and army, landing in northern England. He secured a significant victory against English forces at the Battle of Fulford near York on September 20th. York surrendered shortly thereafter. However, this success was tragically short-lived.

Battle of Stamford Bridge

Unbeknownst to Harald, King Harold Godwinson rapidly marched his army north. On September 25, 1066, Godwinson launched a surprise attack on Harald's forces at Stamford Bridge. Caught unprepared and lightly armored, Harald's army was routed. Harald himself was killed early in the battle, reportedly struck by an arrow to the throat, fighting ferociously without his mail shirt.

End of an Era

Harald Hardrada's death at Stamford Bridge is widely considered the definitive end of the Viking Age. His defeat, followed closely by Harold Godwinson's own demise at the Battle of Hastings against William the Conqueror, dramatically reshaped the political landscape of England and Scandinavia.

Personal Attributes

Physical Prowess and Appearance

Descriptions portray Harald as a man of imposing stature, larger and stronger than most, with light hair, a distinctive moustache, and one eyebrow set higher than the other. His physical presence was noted even by his enemies, with Harold Godwinson reportedly offering him "six feet of English ground" as his burial place.

The Poet King

Beyond his martial skills, Harald possessed a notable talent for composing skaldic poetry. This artistic inclination suggests a keen awareness of his own legacy and image. His repertoire of skills reportedly included not only poetry but also brewing, riding, swimming, skiing, shooting, rowing, and harp playing, reflecting the multifaceted ideal of a Viking leader.

Marriages and Issue

Harald married Elisiv of Kiev, daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, around 1044-1045, with whom he had at least two daughters, Ingegerd and Maria. He also married Tora Torbergsdatter, possibly in a bigamous union, with whom he had two sons who succeeded him: Magnus II and Olaf III. His relationships and family arrangements reflected the complex political and social norms of the era.

Enduring Legacy

Final Resting Place

Harald's remains were eventually brought back to Norway and interred in the Mary Church in Nidaros (Trondheim). Later, his body was moved to Helgeseter Priory. Modern discussions have considered exhuming and reinterring his remains in Nidaros Cathedral, though these plans have not materialized, leaving his final resting place somewhat uncertain beneath a modern road.

Monuments and Memory

Harald's historical significance is commemorated in Oslo, the city traditionally attributed to his founding. Monuments, including bronze reliefs depicting him on horseback, stand in his honor at Harald Hardrådes plass and on the facade of Oslo City Hall. His image also appears in stained glass in Shetland, reflecting his reach across Northern Europe.

Exploration and Exploration

Beyond his military exploits, Harald demonstrated an interest in exploring the known world. Contemporary accounts suggest he led naval expeditions into the northern oceans, possibly reaching lands unknown to most Europeans, perhaps even seeking the legendary Vinland. This spirit of exploration further cements his image as a figure of significant historical reach.

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References

"Det store norske leksikon" (The Great Norwegian Encyclopedia)

Cleasby, Richard and Gudbrand Vigfusson, An IcelandicâEnglish Dictionary, 2nd ed. by William A. Craigie (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957), s.v. harÃ°r.

Judith Jesch, 'Norse Historical Traditions and Historia Gruffud vab Kenan: Magnus Berfoettr and Haraldr Harfagri', in Gruffudd ap Cynan: A Collaborative Biography, edited by K.L. Maund (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 117â147 (p. 139 n. 62).

Judith Jesch, 'Norse Historical Traditions and Historia Gruffud vab Kenan: Magnus Berfoettr and Haraldr Harfagri', in Gruffudd ap Cynan: A Collaborative Biography, edited by K.L. Maund (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 117â147 (pp. 139â147).

Shami Ghosh, Kings' Sagas and Norwegian History: Problems and Perspectives, The Northern World, 54 (Leiden: Brill, 2011), pp. 66â70.

Sturluson, Snorri. "King Harald's Saga." Heimskringla. Penguin Classics, 2005.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Harald Hardrada Wikipedia page

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The Saga of Harald Hardrada

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Epithets and Identity 📜

⚡ Hardrada: The 'Severe Ruler'

Formative Years 👶

👑 Royal Lineage and Early Ambition

⚔️ The Battle of Stiklestad

Years in Exile 🌍

🗺️ Kievan Rus' and Military Service

🏛️ The Varangian Guard

💰 Amassing Fortune and Influence

Ascension and Reign 👑

🇳🇴 Claiming the Norwegian Throne

⚖️ Consolidation of Power

💰 Economic and Religious Policies

The Final Campaign 🏴󠁧󠁢󠁥󠁮󠁧󠁿

🇬🇧 Claiming the English Crown

💀 Battle of Stamford Bridge

⏳ End of an Era

Personal Attributes 👤

💪 Physical Prowess and Appearance

✍️ The Poet King

❤️ Marriages and Issue

Enduring Legacy ⭐

⚰️ Final Resting Place

🏛️ Monuments and Memory

🧭 Exploration and Exploration

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Epithets and Identity

Hardrada: The 'Severe Ruler'

Formative Years

Royal Lineage and Early Ambition

The Battle of Stiklestad

Years in Exile

Kievan Rus' and Military Service

The Varangian Guard

Amassing Fortune and Influence

Ascension and Reign

Claiming the Norwegian Throne

Consolidation of Power

Economic and Religious Policies

The Final Campaign

Claiming the English Crown

Battle of Stamford Bridge

End of an Era

Personal Attributes

Physical Prowess and Appearance

The Poet King

Marriages and Issue

Enduring Legacy

Final Resting Place

Monuments and Memory

Exploration and Exploration

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice