What is the fundamental emphasis of humanism as a philosophical stance?

Humanism is a philosophical stance that places significant emphasis on the individual and social potential, as well as the agency of human beings. It views humans as the essential starting point for serious moral and philosophical contemplation.

How has the meaning of the term 'humanism' evolved over time?

The meaning of 'humanism' has changed throughout history. It began with Italian Renaissance scholars inspired by classical scholarship, was reinforced by Enlightenment advances in science and technology, and in the early 21st century, generally denotes a focus on human well-being, freedom, happiness, autonomy, and progress.

What are the core values advocated by humanists in the early 21st century?

In contemporary usage, humanists advocate for human freedom, happiness, autonomy, and progress. They believe humanity is responsible for its own development, emphasize the equal and inherent dignity of all people, and focus on human concerns in relation to the world. Humanists typically support human rights, free speech, progressive policies, and democracy.

What is the typical stance of organized humanist movements in the 20th century and beyond regarding religion?

Starting in the 20th century, organized humanist movements have predominantly been non-religious and aligned with secularism. In contemporary terms, humanism as a philosophy generally refers to a non-theistic worldview centered on human agency, relying on science and reason rather than divine revelation to understand the world.

What is the etymological root of the word 'humanism'?

The word 'humanism' derives from the Latin word 'humanitas', which was first used by ancient Roman thinkers like Cicero. This term was used to describe values associated with a liberal education, a concept still reflected in the modern academic field of the humanities.

When did the term 'humanism' reappear in relation to classical scholarship, and what did it signify then?

The term 'humanism' reappeared during the Italian Renaissance, associated with scholars who studied classical literature and advocated for a classical education. The word 'humanist' was used to describe these scholars, who specialized in disciplines like rhetoric, grammar, poetry, history, and moral philosophy, collectively known as the 'studia humanitatis'.

How was 'humanist' defined in Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary?

In Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary, 'humanist' was defined as a philologer or grammarian, derived from the French word 'humaniste'. A later edition added a meaning specific to Scotland, referring to a term used in its schools.

What theological origin of the term 'humanism' is now considered obsolete?

An obsolete theological origin of the term 'humanism' relates to its use in the 1780s by Thomas Howes to refer to those who maintained the 'mere humanity' of Christ, in contrast to Unitarian views. This usage is no longer prevalent.

How did the term 'humanism' re-enter the English language in the early 19th century with distinct meanings?

In the early 19th century, the German term 'humanismus' re-entered English with two main meanings: an academic term linked to the study of classical literature, and a more common usage signifying a non-religious approach to life that contrasted with theism.

Who is credited with coining the German term 'humanismus' in the context of education?

Bavarian theologian Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer is credited with coining the term 'humanismus' to describe a new classical curriculum he planned for German secondary schools.

What is a key characteristic of humanism regarding its definition?

A key characteristic of humanism is that there is no single, universally accepted definition; scholars have attributed various meanings to the term over time.

According to Sidney Hook, what are some defining characteristics of humanists?

Sidney Hook described humanists as individuals who oppose the imposition of one culture, do not belong to established religious institutions, do not support dictatorships, and advocate for the elimination of hunger and improvements in health, housing, and education.

What did H. J. Blackham argue was the focus of humanism?

H. J. Blackham argued that humanism is a concept focused on improving humanity's social conditions by enhancing the autonomy and dignity of all individuals.

What did Jeaneane D. Fowler suggest should be included in the definition of humanism?

Jeaneane D. Fowler suggested that the definition of humanism should encompass a rejection of divinity and an emphasis on human well-being and freedom. She also noted a lack of a shared belief system but a general aim among humanists for happiness and self-fulfillment.

What are the five points defining humanism according to Andrew Copson?

According to Andrew Copson, humanism is: 1. Naturalistic in its understanding of the universe, relying on science and free inquiry. 2. Recognizes that the scientific approach does not diminish humans. 3. Values the pursuit of a self-defined, meaningful, and happy life. 4. Is moral, viewing morality as a means to improve lives. 5. Involves practical action to improve personal and social conditions.

How does the International Humanist and Ethical Union define humanism?

The International Humanist and Ethical Union defines humanism as a democratic and ethical life stance affirming human beings' right and responsibility to shape their own lives. It advocates for building a more humane society through ethics based on human and natural values, guided by reason and free inquiry, and explicitly states it is not theistic and rejects supernatural views of reality.

What does the Merriam Webster Dictionary define humanism as?

Merriam Webster Dictionary defines humanism as a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values, specifically highlighting a philosophy that typically rejects supernaturalism and emphasizes individual dignity, worth, and capacity for self-realization through reason.

Where can traces of humanism be found in ancient philosophy?

Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly with Pre-Socratic philosophers who attempted to explain the world through human reason and natural law, and with philosophers like Protagoras, Socrates, Aristotle, and Epicurus who focused on human reason, well-being, and ethics.

Which Pre-Socratic philosopher is noted for an early agnostic statement regarding the gods?

Protagoras, an Athenian philosopher around 440 BCE, is noted for an early agnostic statement about the gods, with fragments suggesting he could not know if they existed or their nature due to the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life.

How did Socrates' philosophy influence the focus of ancient thought?

Socrates shifted the focus of contemporary philosophy from the natural world to humans and their well-being, famously emphasizing the need to 'know thyself'.

What ethical system developed by Epicurus parallels humanist thought?

Epicurus developed an influential, human-centered philosophy focused on achieving eudaimonia (a flourishing life). His followers continued Democritus' atomist theory, and key ingredients of Epicurean philosophy included human happiness, living well, friendship, and avoiding excesses.

Besides Greek philosophy, where else can predecessor movements to modern humanism be found?

Predecessor movements with similar vocabulary to modern Western humanism can be found in Chinese philosophy and religions such as Taoism and Confucianism. Additionally, Arabic translations of Greek literature influenced Islamic philosophers who pursued rational and scientific discourse.

What was the significance of Petrarch in the development of Renaissance humanism?

Petrarch is often referred to as the father of humanism. His enthusiasm for ancient texts led him to discover influential manuscripts, and he developed a list of four key disciplines—rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar—that formed the basis of humanistic studies, known as 'studia humanitatis'.

How did Renaissance humanism influence education in the 15th century?

Renaissance humanists significantly influenced education. Figures like Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino Veronese established schools based on humanist principles, and their curriculum became widely adopted, shaping pre-university education by the 16th century.

What impact did Renaissance humanism have on fields beyond education?

Renaissance humanism also made progress in philosophy, mathematics, and religion. Philosophers like Poliziano, Nicholas of Cusa, Ficino, and Pico della Mirandola contributed to understanding classical philosophers and challenging existing doctrines, while religious studies were influenced by translations of biblical texts.

How did humanistic values spread from Italy in the 15th century?

Humanistic values spread from Italy as students and scholars traveled to study there and then returned to their homelands carrying these ideas. The establishment of printing houses dedicated to ancient texts in cities like Venice, Basel, and Paris also facilitated this spread.

Who was considered the leading humanist scholar as the center of humanism shifted to Northern Europe?

As the center of humanism shifted from Italy to Northern Europe by the end of the 15th century, Erasmus of Rotterdam emerged as the leading humanist scholar.

What were the long-lasting effects of Renaissance humanism on politics and law?

Renaissance humanism heavily influenced politics, with figures like Mercurino di Gattinara and Alfonso de Valdés influencing rulers like Charles V. Spanish humanist Francisco de Vitoria, founder of the School of Salamanca, significantly impacted international law and free market economics.

How did humanistic ideas resurface during the Age of Enlightenment?

During the Age of Enlightenment, humanistic ideas resurfaced with a greater distance from religion and classical literature. Humanists argued that rationality could replace deism for understanding the world, and values like tolerance and opposition to slavery began to take shape.

What philosophical shifts occurred regarding the concept of humanity during the Enlightenment?

During the Enlightenment, the abstract conception of humanity began to form. Appeals shifted from 'men' to 'man,' signifying a universal conception, as seen in works like Rousseau's 'The Social Contract' and Thomas Paine's 'Rights of Man'.

How did Auguste Comte contribute to the concept of a 'religion of humanity'?

Auguste Comte introduced the idea of a 'religion of humanity,' which was intended as an atheist cult based on humanist tenets. Though it declined, its humanist principles and rejection of supernaturalism influenced later authors.

What scientific and philosophical developments in the 19th century influenced humanism?

Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection provided a naturalistic explanation for species diversity and suggested humans are part of the natural world, challenging theological views. Philosophers like Feuerbach, Nietzsche, and Marx attacked religion, while utilitarianism, developed by Bentham and Mill, focused on human happiness and pain elimination.

What ethical societies emerged in Britain in the late 19th century that contributed to the humanist movement?

In the late 19th century, the rise of rationalism and the scientific method in Britain led to the formation of associations like the National Secular Society, the Ethical Union, and the Rationalist Press Association, which contributed to the contemporary humanist movement.

Which prominent 20th-century philosophers helped popularize humanist ideas?

Philosophers such as A. J. Ayer, Antony Flew, and Bertrand Russell, through their advocacy of atheism and rational thought, helped popularize humanist ideas in the 20th century.

How did humanism evolve in the United States in the 20th century?

In the US, humanism evolved with influence from the Unitarian Church, leading to publications like 'The New Humanist' and the establishment of the American Humanist Association (AHA) in 1941. The AHA became popular, attracted prominent figures, and engaged in campaigns for social issues, eventually drawing criticism from the religious right.

What is the relationship between modern humanism and Renaissance humanism?

While modern humanism's roots can be traced to Renaissance scholarship, the term 'Renaissance humanism' refers to a distinct historical movement. Modern humanism is not a direct descendant of Renaissance humanism or 'religious humanism,' and their histories are not a single linear story.

What are some of the terms that use 'humanism' in their name, and how do they relate to the broader concept?

Other terms include 'religious humanism' (synonymous with Ethical Culture, prominent in the US early 20th century), 'scientific humanism' (emphasizing the scientific method, largely synonymous with secular humanism), 'Marxist humanism' (accepting some tenets but differing on democracy and free will), and 'digital humanism' (focusing on human values amidst technological advancement). Many of these are now considered historical or academic terms, with secular humanism representing the contemporary movement.

What is the philosophical basis of humanism concerning rationality and truth?

Humanism is strongly linked to rationality, viewing humans as reasonable beings who use reasoning and the scientific method to discover truth. Humanists argue that science and rationality have driven successful developments, while supernatural explanations fail to coherently explain the world.

What role does human autonomy play in humanist philosophy?

Human autonomy is a central tenet of humanist philosophy, asserting that individuals' beliefs and actions should stem from their own reasoning. This autonomy is seen as dignifying each person and essential to their humanity.

How did Immanuel Kant contribute to the philosophical underpinnings of humanism?

Immanuel Kant provided a modern philosophical basis for humanism through his theory of critical philosophy, which defended rationalism grounded in the empirical world. He also supported the concept of moral autonomy for individuals, viewing morality as a product of human life rather than fixed values.

What is the humanist perspective on the meaning of life?

Humanism does not prescribe a single, definitive meaning of life, unlike many religions. Instead, humanists generally believe that individuals create their own meaning through personal agency and self-determination, often finding value in happiness, participation in history, connection with others, and the pursuit of worthy purposes.

How has the humanist attitude toward morality evolved over time?

Humanist morality evolved from an objective, universalist stance in the 18th century, influenced by Utilitarianism and Kantian ethics, towards a more socially progressive and egalitarian approach in the 20th century. Contemporary humanist ethics support secularism, civil rights, personal autonomy, multiculturalism, and cosmopolitanism.

What is the humanist response to the criticism that morality requires a divine basis?

Humanists argue that theism is an obstacle, not a prerequisite, for morality. They contend that acting out of fear, dogma, or expectation of reward is selfish, not moral. They also point to the Euthyphro dilemma and the human interpretation of religious texts as evidence that morality can be derived through reason and human experience.

What is the general humanist stance on religion?

Humanism is often seen as antithetical to religion, with its emphasis on human-made knowledge and secularism challenging religiously defined orders. However, some humanists believe that components of religion, like belief and culture, can coexist with humanism, and most humanists advocate for religious tolerance.

What is the primary political hallmark of contemporary humanism?

The primary political hallmark of contemporary humanism is the demand for secularism, which advocates for fair treatment of all citizens regardless of religion and separates religious matters from state affairs.

How does humanism view nationalism and totalitarianism?

Humanism generally opposes the irrationality inherent in nationalism and totalitarianism, whether they manifest in ideologies like fascism or Marxist-Leninist communism.

What are the two main tendencies within contemporary humanism in political theory?

In political theory, contemporary humanism exhibits two main tendencies: an individualistic approach, often leaning towards libertarianism and a scientistic ethical perspective, and a collectivistic approach, leaning towards socialism with a humanitarian ethical stance.

What is the connection between humanism and psychology?

Humanism has inspired a major current in counseling known as humanistic counseling, which is based on the works of psychologists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. This approach emphasizes respecting the client's worldview, focusing on self-actualization and creativity, and addressing existential and moral questions through dialogue.

What criticisms are leveled against humanism regarding its Western origins and values?

Criticisms include the assertion that humanist values, particularly human rights, are inherently 'Western' and can be used as a tool for Western moral dominance or neo-colonialism, potentially leading to oppression and a lack of ethical diversity. Some critics also argue that humanism is biased due to its historical shaping by white, heterosexual males.

What is the core argument of 'antihumanism'?

Antihumanism is a philosophical theory that rejects humanism, viewing it as a pre-scientific ideology. Thinkers like Nietzsche and Althusser criticized humanism for its perceived illusions about truth and human nature, with Nietzsche suggesting that replacing theism with reason merely substitutes one religion for another.

What are some major global humanist organizations?

Major global humanist organizations include Humanists International, Humanists UK (formerly the British Humanist Association), and the American Humanist Association (AHA). The Norwegian Humanist Association is noted as the largest humanist organization.

Humanism Wiki: The Humanist Compass: Navigating Reason and Flourishing

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Defining Humanism

Core Stance

Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, agency, and dignity of human beings. It posits humanity as the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry, advocating for human freedom, happiness, autonomy, and progress.

Evolving Meaning

The term's meaning has evolved significantly. Initially associated with Renaissance scholars and liberal education, it later gained prominence during the Enlightenment, reinforcing humanistic values through scientific advancement. Contemporary usage typically denotes a non-theistic, secular approach focused on human well-being and rational inquiry.

Ethical Foundation

Humanism asserts that morality is not contingent on divine revelation but is grounded in human reason, empathy, and the pursuit of collective well-being. It champions human rights, democracy, and secularism, advocating for a society free from undue religious influence.

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots

Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy, with thinkers like Protagoras, Socrates, Aristotle, and Epicurus emphasizing human reason, ethics, and well-being. Similar sentiments also appeared in Chinese philosophy and religions like Taoism and Confucianism.

Renaissance Flourishing

Renaissance humanism, emerging in 13th-century Italy, marked a revival of interest in classical literature and arts. Figures like Petrarch and Coluccio Salutati championed a curriculum focused on the humanities, influencing education and culture across Europe.

Rediscovery and translation of classical texts.
Emphasis on rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar (studia humanitatis).
Influence on education, politics, and philosophy.
Spread from Italy to Northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam as a leading figure.

Enlightenment & Beyond

The Age of Enlightenment saw humanistic ideas advance, increasingly detached from religion. Rationality, tolerance, and individual autonomy became central. Later, Darwin's theories and philosophical critiques of religion further shaped humanist thought, leading to the formation of organized secular movements.

Emphasis on science, rationality, and natural law.
Development of concepts like tolerance and individual rights.
Philosophical critiques of theism and organized religion.
Influence of thinkers like Spinoza, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Paine.
Post-Darwinian thought and utilitarian ethics shaped later movements.

Core Philosophical Tenets

Rationality & Science

Humanism strongly advocates for rationality and the scientific method as the primary means of understanding the world and acquiring knowledge. It views these tools as superior to supernatural explanations for their coherence and empirical grounding.

Autonomy & Dignity

Central to humanist philosophy is the concept of human autonomy – the capacity for individuals to make their own reasoned choices and shape their own lives. This autonomy is seen as fundamental to human dignity and self-realization.

Meaning & Flourishing

Humanism posits that meaning in life is not discovered but created by individuals. It encourages the pursuit of happiness, self-fulfillment, and ethical living, emphasizing personal agency and responsibility in constructing a valuable existence.

Diverse Humanist Expressions

Secular Humanism

The most prevalent form today, emphasizing a non-theistic, naturalistic worldview, reliance on reason and science, and a commitment to human welfare and ethical conduct without recourse to supernatural beliefs.

Renaissance Humanism

A historical movement focused on the revival of classical learning and its application to education, arts, and civic life. While influential, its direct connection to modern humanism is debated.

Other Forms

Includes Scientific Humanism (synonymous with secular), Marxist Humanism (focusing on overcoming alienation), and Digital Humanism (addressing values in the digital age). Religious or Christian Humanism exists but is often seen as distinct or contradictory by secular humanists.

Humanism in Public Life

Political Advocacy

Contemporary humanism in politics strongly advocates for secularism, ensuring fair treatment for all citizens regardless of religious belief. It promotes democracy, human rights, and opposes discrimination, nationalism, and totalitarianism.

Societal Tendencies

Political humanism encompasses both individualistic (leaning towards libertarianism) and collectivistic (leaning towards socialism) tendencies. It seeks to apply humanist principles to social and economic structures, often critiquing unchecked capitalism.

Psychological Alignment

Humanistic psychology, influenced by figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasizes positive growth, self-actualization, and existential well-being. Humanist counseling draws from these principles, focusing on client autonomy and worldview.

Demographic Profile

Key Characteristics

Data suggests humanists are predominantly non-religious (atheist, agnostic, or 'nothing in particular'), often raised in religious backgrounds. They tend to be highly educated, identify with secular values, and are disproportionately male and non-Hispanic white.

Global Presence

Humanist organizations are active globally, with significant presence in the UK, India, and the US. Organizations like Humanists International, Humanists UK, and the American Humanist Association promote secular values and conduct non-religious ceremonies.

Critical Perspectives

Western Bias

Critics argue humanism's focus on human rights can be perceived as Western moral dominance, potentially leading to neo-colonialism and a lack of ethical diversity. Some feminist and postcolonial scholars contend it inherits biases from its predominantly white, male historical shapers.

Amoral & Materialistic

Some religious critics accuse humanism of promoting materialism, undermining traditional values, and leading to moral decay due to its rejection of divine authority. Humanists counter that morality is derived from reason and empathy, not dogma.

Vagueness & Antihumanism

The term "humanism" itself is sometimes criticized for being vague and difficult to define, potentially encompassing contradictory ideas. Antihumanist philosophies challenge its core tenets, viewing it as a form of secular religion or an inadequate framework for understanding human existence.

Key Organizations

Humanists International

The global umbrella organization representing humanist, rationalist, and secularist societies worldwide. It advocates for secularism and human rights on an international level.

Humanists UK

One of the oldest and largest humanist organizations, formerly the British Humanist Association. It actively promotes secularism in public life and provides non-religious ceremonies.

American Humanist Association

Established in 1941, the AHA is a prominent US organization that champions humanist values, advocates for secular governance, and presents the annual "Humanist of the Year" award.

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References

Mann 1996; Copson 2015, pp. 1â2.

Johnson, Samuel (1785) A Dictionary of the English language. Sixth Edition, Volume 1, p. 981.

Schafer, R. (1930) What is Humanism?. The Virginia Quarterly Review, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 198. JSTOR.

Copson 2015, pp. 1â2; Fowler 1999, pp. 18â19.

IHEU (1996) IHEU Minimum Statement on Humanism. Humanists International, General Assembly.

Law 2011, chapter History of Humanism, #Ancient Greece ":fragment (80B4 DK)"

Lamont 1997, pp. 34â35; Freeman 2015, pp. 124â125.

Grayling 2015, p. 87; Crosson 2020, p. 4.

Goodman 2003, p. 155; Ljamai 2015, pp. 153â56.

Monfasani 2020, p. 4; Nederman 2020.

Mann 1996, p. 8; Monfasani 2020, p. 1.

Monfasani 2020, p. 8: That was the reason Cicero was named as the grandfather of humanism by classicist scholar Berthold Ullman.

Wilson 1974, p. 15; Copson 2015, pp. 3â4.

Lamont 1997, pp. 28â29; Davies 1997, pp. 56â57.

Dierksmeier 2011, p. 79; Rohlf 2020, Morality and freedom.

Norman 2004, pp. 98â105; Shook 2015, p. 406.

Norman 2004, p. 86; Shook 2015, pp. 404â05.

Norman 2004, pp. 88â89; Shook 2015, p. 405.

Norman 2004, pp. 87â88; Shook 2015, p. 405.

Copson 2015, pp. 25â28: Stephen Law makes a similar argument in Humanism, a Very Short Introduction (2011) at page 23

Law 2011, Chapter: The meaning of life, part: Humanism and the meaning of life.

Waggoner, R.L. (1988) The Material Face of Humanism. TheBible.net.

Bakewell, Sarah (2023) Humanly Possible: Seven Hundred Years of Humanist Freethinking, Inquiry, and Hope. Penguin Press, New York, p.11.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Humanism Wikipedia page

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The Humanist Compass

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Humanism ℹ️

💡 Core Stance

⏳ Evolving Meaning

⚖️ Ethical Foundation

Historical Trajectory 📜

🏛️ Ancient Roots

✨ Renaissance Flourishing

💡 Enlightenment & Beyond

Core Philosophical Tenets 🧠

🔬 Rationality & Science

👤 Autonomy & Dignity

🌟 Meaning & Flourishing

Diverse Humanist Expressions 🌐

🌿 Secular Humanism

📜 Renaissance Humanism

🤝 Other Forms

Humanism in Public Life 🏛️

⚖️ Political Advocacy

🌱 Societal Tendencies

🧠 Psychological Alignment

Demographic Profile 👥

📊 Key Characteristics

🌍 Global Presence

Critical Perspectives ⚠️

🌍 Western Bias

🚫 Amoral & Materialistic

❓ Vagueness & Antihumanism

Key Organizations 🏢

🌐 Humanists International

🇬🇧 Humanists UK

🇺🇸 American Humanist Association

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Humanism

Core Stance

Evolving Meaning

Ethical Foundation

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Roots

Renaissance Flourishing

Enlightenment & Beyond

Core Philosophical Tenets

Rationality & Science

Autonomy & Dignity

Meaning & Flourishing

Diverse Humanist Expressions

Secular Humanism

Renaissance Humanism

Other Forms

Humanism in Public Life

Political Advocacy

Societal Tendencies

Psychological Alignment

Demographic Profile

Key Characteristics

Global Presence

Critical Perspectives

Western Bias

Amoral & Materialistic

Vagueness & Antihumanism

Key Organizations

Humanists International

Humanists UK

American Humanist Association

Teacher's Corner

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References

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