What was the Hundred Years' War, and between which kingdoms did it primarily take place?

The Hundred Years' War was a prolonged conflict fought between the kingdoms of England and France, along with their various allies, during the Late Middle Ages. It spanned from 1337 to 1453, making it one of the longest military conflicts in European history. The war was characterized by intermittent fighting, punctuated by several truces and external events like the Black Death.

What were the main underlying causes that led to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War?

The Hundred Years' War stemmed from deep-seated feudal disputes concerning the Duchy of Aquitaine, where English monarchs held territories within France, making them vassals to the French crown. This created a complex relationship of sovereignty and obligation. The conflict was further ignited by Edward III of England's claim to the French throne following the extinction of the direct Capetian dynasty's male line.

How did the dynastic crisis in France in 1328 contribute to the start of the Hundred Years' War?

The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without a male heir created a succession crisis. Edward III of England, as Charles IV's nephew through his mother Isabella, had a claim to the French throne. However, the French nobility rejected this claim, citing Salic Law which prevented inheritance through the female line, and instead chose Philip VI, a cousin, as king. This dynastic dispute provided Edward III with a pretext to assert his claim by force.

What was the significance of the Duchy of Aquitaine (or Guyenne and Gascony) in the context of the Hundred Years' War's origins?

The Duchy of Aquitaine, often referred to as Guyenne or Gascony, was a significant English possession in France. As Duke of Aquitaine, the English king was a vassal to the French king, creating a constant source of friction. French kings sought to consolidate their authority by reducing English holdings, while English kings aimed to maintain and expand their continental territories, making the sovereignty of Aquitaine a central issue leading to the war.

What was the nature of the Franco-Scottish alliance, and how did it impact the Hundred Years' War?

France and Scotland maintained a long-standing alliance, known as the Auld Alliance, which obligated them to support each other if attacked by England. This alliance meant that England had to contend with potential conflict on two fronts, often diverting English resources and attention from the main theater of war in France. Scotland's involvement, though sometimes limited, served as a crucial diversionary tactic for France.

How is the Hundred Years' War typically divided into phases, and what were the general characteristics of each?

The Hundred Years' War is commonly divided into three phases: the Edwardian War (1337–1360), marked by early English victories; the Caroline War (1369–1389), characterized by French resurgence under Charles V; and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453), which saw renewed English successes followed by a decisive French victory. These phases were separated by periods of truce and shifting alliances.

What were the key English military successes during the Edwardian phase of the war?

During the Edwardian phase, England achieved significant military victories, notably the Battle of Crécy in 1346 and the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. In the latter, King John II of France was captured, demonstrating the effectiveness of English tactics, particularly the use of longbowmen against French heavy cavalry.

What was the impact of the Black Death on France and England during the war?

The Black Death, which swept through Europe between 1347 and 1351, had devastating demographic and economic consequences for both France and England. France suffered higher mortality rates, leading to labor shortages, economic collapse, and social dislocation. While England also experienced significant population loss, the economic recovery and resolution of certain crises occurred more rapidly, influencing the war's progression.

How did Charles V of France and Bertrand du Guesclin contribute to the French resurgence during the Caroline phase?

Under King Charles V the Wise and his constable Bertrand du Guesclin, France experienced a significant resurgence during the Caroline phase. They employed Fabian tactics, avoiding large pitched battles and focusing on strategic sieges and skirmishes to gradually regain territory. By 1378, they had reconquered most of the lands previously ceded to England in the Treaty of Brétigny, significantly reducing English holdings on the continent.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360?

The Treaty of Brétigny marked a temporary end to the first phase of the war. It established terms where Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne in exchange for enlarged territories in Aquitaine, and a substantial ransom was set for the captured King John II of France. This treaty aimed to bring lasting peace, though it ultimately proved short-lived.

How did the French involvement in the Castilian Civil War affect the Hundred Years' War?

The French supported Henry of Trastámara in the Castilian Civil War, while the English backed Peter of Castile. This intervention drew both nations into regional conflicts, with figures like the Black Prince leading campaigns in Spain. The outcomes of these proxy wars, such as the Battle of Nájera, influenced the broader strategic balance between England and France.

What was the outcome of John of Gaunt's 1373 campaign in France?

John of Gaunt's chevauchée in 1373 was a large-scale raid across France, intended to disrupt French territory. Despite being a remarkable feat of endurance, it was ultimately a military failure. The English army suffered heavy losses due to weather, disease, and French avoidance of direct confrontation, failing to achieve significant strategic objectives.

What internal turmoil affected England during the later stages of the war, particularly during Richard II's reign?

England faced significant internal challenges, including the Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and political instability surrounding Richard II's rule. His attempts to raise taxes for military campaigns, coupled with his perceived mismanagement, led to conflicts with powerful nobles, known as the Lords Appellant, which diverted attention and resources from the war effort in France.

How did the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War weaken France and create an opportunity for England?

The internal conflict between the Armagnacs and Burgundians in France created a power vacuum and widespread instability. This civil war, exacerbated by the mental illness of Charles VI, allowed Henry V of England to exploit the divisions. His alliance with the Burgundians and decisive victory at the Battle of Agincourt paved the way for the Treaty of Troyes.

What was the significance of the Battle of Agincourt in 1415?

The Battle of Agincourt was a catastrophic defeat for the French nobility and a major victory for Henry V of England. Despite being heavily outnumbered and facing logistical challenges, the English longbowmen proved devastatingly effective against the French forces. This victory significantly boosted English morale and paved the way for further English advances into France.

What did the Treaty of Troyes (1420) stipulate, and how did it attempt to resolve the conflict?

The Treaty of Troyes was an agreement between Henry V of England and Charles VI of France that aimed to settle the succession to the French throne. It stipulated that Henry V would marry Charles VI's daughter, Catherine of Valois, and that Henry's heirs would inherit the French crown, effectively disinheriting the Dauphin Charles VII. This treaty aimed to create a unified Anglo-French monarchy.

What role did Joan of Arc play in reviving French fortunes during the Lancastrian phase?

Joan of Arc emerged as a pivotal figure in the French revival, inspiring the demoralized French troops. Her arrival at the Siege of Orléans in 1429 marked a turning point, leading to the lifting of the siege and subsequent French victories along the Loire River. Her presence boosted French morale and contributed significantly to the Dauphin's coronation as Charles VII.

What was the significance of the Siege of Orléans in 1429?

The Siege of Orléans in 1429 was a critical moment in the Hundred Years' War. The English siege had created a stalemate, but the intervention of Joan of Arc galvanized the French forces. The subsequent lifting of the siege marked a major turning point, shifting the momentum of the war in favor of the French and paving the way for Charles VII's coronation.

How did the Battle of Formigny (1450) and the Battle of Castillon (1453) contribute to the final French victory?

The Battle of Formigny in 1450 was a decisive French victory that weakened English control in Normandy. Subsequently, the Battle of Castillon in 1453, notable for its extensive use of artillery, resulted in the final defeat of English forces in Gascony. These battles effectively ended major hostilities and secured French dominance, marking the conclusion of the war.

What were the long-term consequences of the Hundred Years' War for England and France?

The Hundred Years' War had profound long-term consequences. It led to the expulsion of England from continental France, except for Calais, and fostered stronger national identities in both kingdoms. The war also spurred military innovations, such as standing armies and artillery, and contributed to the decline of feudalism and chivalry, fundamentally changing European warfare and state structures.

How did the Hundred Years' War influence the development of military tactics and technology?

The war spurred significant military evolution. It saw the increased importance of infantry, particularly archers with longbows, challenging the dominance of heavy cavalry. Furthermore, the development and deployment of artillery became crucial, as demonstrated in the Battle of Castillon, fundamentally altering battlefield dynamics and the nature of siege warfare.

What was the impact of the war on the concept of chivalry and the structure of armies?

The Hundred Years' War marked both the height and the beginning of the decline of chivalry as a dominant military code. The increasing professionalism of armies, the rise of infantry, and the devastating effectiveness of new technologies like gunpowder artillery began to overshadow traditional knightly combat. This period saw a gradual shift from feudal levies towards more organized, paid, standing armies.

How did the Hundred Years' War contribute to the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in England?

England's defeat in the Hundred Years' War led to significant political and financial repercussions. The loss of continental territories and the associated costs generated dissatisfaction among English nobles and the public. This discontent, combined with the weakened authority of the monarchy, contributed to the internal power struggles that erupted into the Wars of the Roses.

What role did the Black Prince play in the Hundred Years' War, particularly in the Edwardian phase?

Edward, the Black Prince, son of Edward III, was a prominent military leader for England during the Edwardian phase. He achieved significant victories, including at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 where he captured the French king. His campaigns, known as chevauchées, involved extensive raiding and pillaging across French territory.

What were the 'chevauchées' employed during the Hundred Years' War?

Chevauchées were large-scale, mounted raids characteristic of the Hundred Years' War, often led by English commanders like the Black Prince. These campaigns involved rapid movement through enemy territory, focused on plundering, destroying resources, and demoralizing the population, rather than capturing and holding territory through sieges.

What was the significance of Calais for the English during the Hundred Years' War?

The capture of Calais in 1347 provided England with a crucial strategic foothold on the continent. It served as a secure base for English operations in northern France and a port for troop deployment and supply. Calais remained under English control for over two centuries, even after the end of the Hundred Years' War.

How did the French monarchy consolidate power and develop state capacity as a result of the war?

The existential threat posed by the English occupation during the Hundred Years' War compelled the French monarchy to centralize power and develop more efficient state mechanisms. Kings like Charles V and Charles VII implemented consistent taxation and established professional standing armies, known as the *Compagnies d'ordonnance*, which increased the state's capacity to wage war and govern effectively.

What was the role of artillery in the Hundred Years' War, particularly in its later stages?

Artillery, especially cannons, played an increasingly significant role as the war progressed. The French, in particular, developed advanced artillery capabilities that proved decisive in sieges and battles, such as the Battle of Castillon. This technological advancement marked a shift away from traditional medieval warfare, where cavalry had previously dominated.

Who was Bertrand du Guesclin, and what was his contribution to the French war effort?

Bertrand du Guesclin was a prominent Breton military leader who rose to become Constable of France. He was instrumental in the French resurgence during the Caroline phase, employing effective strategies that avoided pitched battles and focused on regaining territory through sieges and skirmishes. His leadership helped restore French fortunes against the English.

What happened to England's continental possessions by the end of the Hundred Years' War?

By the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War, England had lost virtually all of its continental territories. Its holdings were reduced to the Pale of Calais and a few scattered ports, marking the end of England's significant territorial presence in France that had lasted for centuries.

How did the Hundred Years' War impact the English language and its development?

The Hundred Years' War contributed to the shift in England from Anglo-Norman French to English as the primary language of government and commerce. While the Norman Conquest had established French as the language of the ruling class, the war fostered a sense of English national identity that led to English becoming the official language by 1362, with French usage declining thereafter.

What were the 'Lords Appellant' and how did their actions affect English politics during the war?

The Lords Appellant were a group of English nobles who challenged the authority of Richard II in the late 1380s. They accused Richard's advisors of treason and gained control of the government, though they failed to reignite the war in France. Their actions highlighted the internal political instability in England during the later stages of the conflict.

What was the 'Jacquerie'?

The Jacquerie was a peasant revolt that occurred in northern France in 1358 during the Hundred Years' War. It was a violent uprising against the nobility, fueled by the devastation caused by the war, plague, and economic hardship. The revolt was brutally suppressed by the French nobility.

What was the role of Burgundy in the Hundred Years' War, particularly during the Lancastrian phase?

The Duchy of Burgundy played a complex and shifting role. Initially allied with England during the Lancastrian phase, Burgundy's support was crucial for Henry V's successes, including the Treaty of Troyes. However, Burgundy later switched allegiance to Charles VII of France following the Treaty of Arras in 1435, a move that significantly weakened the English position.

How did the Hundred Years' War contribute to the development of standing armies in Western Europe?

The prolonged and costly nature of the Hundred Years' War necessitated the creation of more permanent, professional fighting forces. Charles V of France established the first standing army in Western Europe since the Roman Empire, composed of paid soldiers. Charles VII later reformed and expanded this system with the *Compagnies d'ordonnance*, providing a significant advantage over feudal levies.

What was the significance of the 'Auld Alliance' between Scotland and France?

The Auld Alliance was a strategic pact between Scotland and France aimed at countering English influence. It meant that England often had to fight on two fronts, as Scotland would typically launch diversionary attacks when England was heavily engaged in France, thereby relieving pressure on the French.

What was the 'Crisis of the late Middle Ages' and how did it relate to the Hundred Years' War?

The 'Crisis of the late Middle Ages' refers to a period of widespread upheaval in 14th-century Europe, characterized by famine, plague (the Black Death), warfare, and social unrest. The Hundred Years' War was a major component of this crisis, exacerbating its effects and being influenced by its various challenges.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Poitiers in 1356?

The Battle of Poitiers in 1356 resulted in a decisive English victory, where the French army was routed and King John II of France was captured by the forces led by Edward, the Black Prince. This capture had profound political and economic consequences for France, leading to further instability.

What was the 'Merciless Parliament'?

The Merciless Parliament was a session of the English Parliament in 1388 where the Lords Appellant, a group of powerful nobles, brought charges of treason against five of Richard II's advisors. This event reflected the intense political factionalism within England during the war period.

How did the French military reforms under Charles VII contribute to their eventual victory?

Charles VII implemented significant military reforms, including the establishment of the *Compagnies d'ordonnance*, a professional standing army. These reforms improved military discipline, organization, and funding, allowing France to field larger, more effective forces and utilize advanced weaponry like artillery, which proved crucial in defeating the English.

What was the 'Truce of Leulinghem'?

The Truce of Leulinghem, signed in 1389, was a period of peace intended to last for three years, later extended. It reflected the exhaustion of both England and France after decades of conflict and internal turmoil, leading to a temporary cessation of major hostilities.

What was the significance of the Battle of Verneuil in 1424?

The Battle of Verneuil was a major English victory during the Lancastrian phase, where the English army, utilizing effective archer tactics, inflicted heavy casualties on the Franco-Scottish forces. This battle significantly weakened the Dauphin's army and diminished the role of Scottish troops in the war.

What happened to Joan of Arc after her capture?

After being captured by Burgundian forces in 1430, Joan of Arc was handed over to the English. She was subsequently tried by an ecclesiastical court, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake in Rouen in 1431. Her execution did not, however, halt the French resurgence.

How did the Hundred Years' War influence the development of national identities in France and England?

The prolonged conflict fostered a sense of shared identity and common purpose within both France and England. The war effort, the shared sacrifices, and the emergence of distinct military and political objectives helped solidify nascent national feelings, contributing to the formation of more centralized states and distinct national consciousnesses.

What was the 'Great Divergence' mentioned in relation to European history?

The 'Great Divergence' refers to the period when Western European nations, particularly those in Northwest Europe, began to develop economically and politically at a much faster rate than other regions of the world. While not directly caused by the Hundred Years' War, the war's impact on state-building and military innovation in France and England contributed to the long-term trends associated with this divergence.

What was the 'Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry' that preceded the Hundred Years' War?

The Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry was a long-standing conflict between the French royal house of Capet and the Anglo-Norman/Angevin dynasty of England. This rivalry stemmed from the English kings' possession of vast territories in France as vassals to the French crown, creating inherent tensions over sovereignty and feudal obligations that predated the main phase of the Hundred Years' War.

What was the 'War of Saint-Sardos'?

The War of Saint-Sardos, fought in 1324, was a conflict between England and France primarily over the status of the Duchy of Aquitaine. It resulted in French territorial gains and further strained relations between the two kingdoms, setting the stage for the larger conflict that would erupt a decade later.

What was the significance of the Battle of La Rochelle in 1372?

The Battle of La Rochelle in 1372 was a naval engagement where the Franco-Castilian fleet decisively defeated the English fleet. This victory significantly weakened English naval power in the Channel and supported French efforts to regain control over Aquitaine, highlighting the importance of naval supremacy in the conflict.

What was the 'Gabelle' and how did it relate to taxation during the war?

The Gabelle was a significant tax on salt in France, which became a crucial source of revenue for the French crown, particularly during the Hundred Years' War. The ability to levy such taxes consistently helped the French monarchy finance its professional army and sustain the war effort, contrasting with England's greater reliance on parliamentary approval for funding.

What was the 'Battle of the Herrings'?

The Battle of the Herrings, fought in 1429 near Rouvray, was a minor engagement during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War. It involved English forces intercepting a supply convoy carrying salted herring to the French army besieging Orléans, resulting in an English victory that delayed French reinforcements.

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Hundred Years' War

Part of the Crisis of the late Middle Ages and the Anglo-French Wars

Clockwise, from top left: the Battle of La Rochelle, the Battle of Agincourt, the Battle of Patay, and Joan of Arc at the Siege of Orl%C3%A9ans

Date	24 May 1337 – 19 October 1453 (intermittent)^[a] (116 years, 4 months, 3 weeks and 4 days)
Location	France, the Low Countries, Great Britain, the Iberian Peninsula
Result	French and allied victory
Territorial changes	England loses all continental possessions except for the Pale of Calais.

Belligerents

Kingdom of France loyal to the House of Valois
Burgundian State (1337–1419; 1435–1453)
Duchy of Brittany
Crown of Castile
Kingdom of Scotland
Welsh rebels
Crown of Aragon

Kingdom of England
Kingdom of France loyal to the House of Plantagenet
Burgundian State (1419–1435)
Duchy of Brittany
Kingdom of Portugal
Kingdom of Navarre
Duchy of Gascony

Commanders and leaders

Philip VI #
John II 🏳️
Charles V #
Charles VI #
Charles VII
Louis, Dauphin
Joan of Arc 💀
Gilles de Rais
Bertrand du Guesclin
Philip the Bold
John the Fearless
Owain Glyndŵr
Philip the Good
Charles of Blois †
David II 🏳️
John Stewart, Earl of Buchan †
Henry of Trastámara
John I of Castile

Edward III #
Richard II ❌
Henry IV #
Henry V #
Henry VI
Edward the Black Prince
John of Gaunt
Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York
John, Duke of Bedford
Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster
Jean III de Grailly 🏳️
Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury †
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury †
John Fastolf
Robert d'Artois
Philip the Good
John of Montfort

War Overview

Duration and Scope

The Hundred Years' War, a protracted conflict spanning 116 years (1337–1453), was an intermittent struggle between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. It emerged from complex feudal disputes over the Duchy of Aquitaine and was ignited by Edward III of England's claim to the French throne. This dynastic struggle evolved into a broader military, economic, and political contest involving various factions across Western Europe, fueled by burgeoning national identities.

Dynastic Struggle

The war centered on the succession to the French throne following the extinction of the direct Capetian line. Five generations of kings from rival dynasties—the House of Valois (France) and the House of Plantagenet (England)—contended for control of France, then the wealthiest kingdom in Western Europe. The conflict fundamentally reshaped the political landscape of both nations.

European Impact

This protracted conflict had profound effects on European history. Both England and France witnessed significant military innovations, including the development of professional standing armies and the increasing importance of artillery. The era also marked the zenith and subsequent decline of chivalry, while fostering stronger, more centralized national identities in both kingdoms, laying the groundwork for their emergence as major global powers.

Roots of Conflict

Feudal Ties and Sovereignty

The conflict's origins trace back to the Norman Conquest of 1066, which placed English monarchs as vassals to the French crown for their continental holdings. This created an inherent tension: English kings, as Dukes of Aquitaine, owed homage to the French king, yet possessed lands that often rivaled the French royal domain in size and influence. The French crown consistently sought to curtail English power within its borders, particularly in the strategically vital region of Guyenne (Aquitaine).

Succession Crisis

The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without a direct male heir triggered a succession crisis. Edward III of England, as Charles's nephew through his mother Isabella, had a claim based on proximity of blood. However, French nobility invoked Salic Law, barring succession through the female line, and favored Philip VI, a cousin from the House of Valois. Edward initially submitted but later renewed his claim, using the dispute over Guyenne as a pretext for war.

Alliances and Trade

The long-standing "Auld Alliance" between France and Scotland meant that English military actions against Scotland often drew French intervention, and vice versa. Furthermore, the economic interdependence, particularly England's crucial wool trade with the Flemish textile industry, played a significant role. Flanders' reliance on English wool and its own grievances against French control provided a strategic advantage for England, influencing alliances and military campaigns.

Phases of War

Edwardian Phase (1337–1360)

This initial phase was marked by significant English military successes, notably the naval victory at Sluys (1340) and the land battles of Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356). These English triumphs, often attributed to the effectiveness of their longbowmen and tactical innovations, resulted in the capture of French King John II at Poitiers. The Treaty of Brétigny (1360) temporarily concluded this phase, granting England substantial territorial gains in Aquitaine and a large ransom for the French king.

Caroline Phase (1369–1389)

Under the astute leadership of King Charles V and his constable Bertrand du Guesclin, France regrouped. Employing Fabian tactics and avoiding large pitched battles, the French gradually recaptured much of the territory lost in the previous phase. Key French victories, such as Cocherel (1364) and the naval triumph at La Rochelle (1372), shifted the momentum, significantly reducing English holdings on the continent.

Lancastrian Phase (1415–1453)

Renewed conflict erupted with Henry V of England's invasion, capitalizing on internal French divisions (the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War). The decisive English victory at Agincourt (1415) paved the way for the conquest of Normandy. The emergence of Joan of Arc revitalized French morale, leading to the pivotal Siege of Orléans (1429) and subsequent French victories like Patay (1429). Despite setbacks, French forces, utilizing improved artillery and tactics, ultimately drove the English out of France, culminating in the Battle of Castillon (1453).

Pivotal Engagements

Battle of Sluys (1340)

A decisive naval engagement where the English fleet, employing superior tactics, annihilated the French navy off the coast of Flanders. This victory secured English dominance of the English Channel for much of the war, preventing French invasions and facilitating English troop movements.

Battle of Crécy (1346)

A stunning English victory characterized by the devastating effectiveness of English longbowmen against French heavy cavalry. The battle demonstrated the changing nature of warfare, highlighting the decline of traditional knightly dominance.

Battle of Poitiers (1356)

Another significant English triumph where the French army was routed, and King John II of France was captured. This battle underscored the tactical superiority of the English forces and plunged France into further political and social turmoil.

Battle of Agincourt (1415)

A legendary English victory led by Henry V, where a smaller English army inflicted catastrophic losses on the French. The battle, fought in muddy conditions, showcased the prowess of English archers and further destabilized the French monarchy.

Siege of Orléans (1429)

A turning point in the war, this siege saw the French, inspired by Joan of Arc, lift the English blockade of Orléans. This victory dramatically boosted French morale and marked the beginning of the French resurgence, ultimately leading to the coronation of Charles VII.

Battle of Castillon (1453)

The final major battle of the war, where French artillery played a crucial role in defeating the English forces. This decisive victory effectively ended English territorial claims in France, except for Calais, marking the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War.

Key Treaties

Treaty of Brétigny (1360)

This treaty temporarily ended the Edwardian phase. England gained full sovereignty over expanded Aquitaine, and Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne in exchange for a substantial ransom for the captured King John II of France. However, the treaty's terms were never fully implemented, contributing to the war's resumption.

Consequences

Territorial Shifts

By the war's conclusion, England lost nearly all its continental possessions, retaining only the Pale of Calais until 1558. France emerged victorious, solidifying its territorial integrity and strengthening the Valois monarchy.

Military Evolution

The war spurred significant military advancements. The decline of feudal cavalry dominance was accelerated by the effectiveness of infantry, particularly archers, and the increasing importance of gunpowder artillery. This led to the development of more professional, standing armies.

National Identity

The prolonged conflict fostered a sense of distinct national identity in both England and France. Shared experiences of war, sacrifice, and victory (or defeat) contributed to the rise of nationalism and the consolidation of centralized states.

English Instability

The immense cost of the war and the humiliation of defeat contributed to political instability in England. Dissatisfaction among the nobility over lost continental lands and financial burdens played a role in triggering the subsequent Wars of the Roses (1455–1487).

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References

Harris 1994, p. 8; Prestwich 1988, p. 298.

Prestwich 1988, p. 298; Prestwich 2007, pp. 292â293.

Sumption 1999, pp. 188â189; Sumption 1999, pp. 233â234.

Le Patourel 1984, pp. 20â21; Wilson 2011, p. 218.

Guignebert 1930, Volume 1. pp. 304â307; Le Patourel 1984, pp. 20â21; Chisholm 1911, p. 501

Backman 2003, pp. 179â180 â Nobles captured in battle were held in "Honorable Captivity", which recognised their status as prisoners of war and permitted ransom.

Wagner 2006, p. 122; Wagner 2006, pp. 3â4.

Baker 2000, p. 6; Neillands 2001, pp. 182â184.

Neillands 2001, pp. 182â184; Curry 2002, pp. 77â82.

Mortimer 2008, pp. 263â264; Bean 2008

Ian Friel. The English and War at Sea. c.1200 â c.1500 in Hattendorf & Unger 2003, pp. 76â77.

Allmand 2010; Wagner 2006, pp. 44â45.

Griffiths 2015; Wagner 2006, pp. 307â308.

"Every version of the complaints put forward by the rebels in 1450 harps on the losses in France" (Webster 1998, pp. 39â40).

Colm McNamee. Hobelars in Rogers 2010, pp. 267â268; Jones 2008, pp. 1â17.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Hundred Years' War Wikipedia page

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This is not historical advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional historical research or consultation. Always refer to primary sources and consult with qualified historians or academics for specific inquiries.

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Clash of Crowns

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War Overview 📜

⏳ Duration and Scope

👑 Dynastic Struggle

🌍 European Impact

Roots of Conflict 🌱

🔗 Feudal Ties and Sovereignty

👑 Succession Crisis

🤝 Alliances and Trade

Phases of War 📅

🛡️ Edwardian Phase (1337–1360)

⚔️ Caroline Phase (1369–1389)

🔥 Lancastrian Phase (1415–1453)

Pivotal Engagements ⚔️

🚢 Battle of Sluys (1340)

🏹 Battle of Crécy (1346)

👑 Battle of Poitiers (1356)

🔥 Battle of Agincourt (1415)

🚩 Siege of Orléans (1429)

💥 Battle of Castillon (1453)

Key Treaties ✍️

🕊️ Treaty of Brétigny (1360)

Consequences 📈

🏰 Territorial Shifts

🛡️ Military Evolution

nationalism National Identity

🥀 English Instability

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War Overview

Duration and Scope

Dynastic Struggle

European Impact

Roots of Conflict

Feudal Ties and Sovereignty

Succession Crisis

Alliances and Trade

Phases of War

Edwardian Phase (1337–1360)

Caroline Phase (1369–1389)

Lancastrian Phase (1415–1453)

Pivotal Engagements

Battle of Sluys (1340)

Battle of Crécy (1346)

Battle of Poitiers (1356)

Battle of Agincourt (1415)

Siege of Orléans (1429)

Battle of Castillon (1453)

Key Treaties

Treaty of Brétigny (1360)

Consequences

Territorial Shifts

Military Evolution

National Identity

English Instability

Teacher's Corner

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Gamer's Corner

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References

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