What is Immanuel Kant's full name and lifespan?

Immanuel Kant, originally named Emanuel Kant, was born on April 22, 1724, and died on February 12, 1804. He was a German philosopher who lived during the Age of Enlightenment.

What are the primary philosophical fields in which Immanuel Kant made significant contributions?

Immanuel Kant made significant and influential contributions to epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics. His comprehensive and systematic works have made him a central figure in modern Western philosophy.

What is the core concept of Kant's doctrine of transcendental idealism?

In his doctrine of transcendental idealism, Kant proposed that space and time are not objective realities but rather subjective 'forms of intuition' that structure all human experience. He argued that the objects we experience are merely 'appearances,' and their true nature as 'things-in-themselves' remains unknowable.

How did Kant's philosophical approach relate to the Copernican Revolution?

Kant drew a parallel between his philosophical shift and the Copernican Revolution in astronomy. He suggested that, similar to how Copernicus changed the perspective on celestial bodies, his philosophy proposed that objects of experience conform to our mind's spatial and temporal forms of intuition and the categories of understanding, rather than the other way around.

What role did Kant assign to reason in his ethical theories?

Kant believed that reason is the fundamental source of morality. He argued that moral obligations stem from rational principles that autonomous individuals give to themselves, rather than from external factors like divine commands or the pursuit of happiness.

What was Kant's view on achieving perpetual peace?

Kant envisioned perpetual peace being secured through an international federation of republican states and robust international cooperation. This vision aimed to establish a global order based on law and mutual respect among nations.

What controversial views did Kant hold regarding race, and how did they evolve?

For much of his career, Kant promulgated views that are now recognized as scientific racism, including a hierarchy of races and opposition to miscegenation. However, in the last decade of his life, particularly in his work 'Perpetual Peace,' he altered his stance, rejecting racial hierarchies and European colonialism, and arguing for the unity of humanity.

Where was Immanuel Kant born, and what was his family background?

Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) on April 22, 1724. His mother, Anna Regina Reuter, was of Nuremberg origin, and his father, Johann Georg Kant, was a German harness-maker from Memel. The family was Lutheran, and the household emphasized pietist values.

What was the nature of Kant's early education?

Kant's early education was characterized by strictness and discipline, with a strong emphasis on Latin and religious instruction. The curriculum at the Collegium Fridericianum, where he studied, prioritized classical languages and theology over mathematics and science.

Who was Martin Knutzen, and what was his influence on Kant?

Martin Knutzen was an Associate Professor at the University of Königsberg who taught Kant. Knutzen was a rationalist philosopher familiar with British thought and introduced Kant to Newtonian physics. He influenced Kant by dissuading him from theories like pre-established harmony and idealism.

How did Kant's father's death impact his studies?

Kant's father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted Kant's university studies. This event led Kant to leave Königsberg for a period to work as a private tutor while continuing his scholarly research.

What was Kant's first published philosophical work?

Kant's first published philosophical work was 'Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces,' which he wrote between 1745 and 1747 and published in 1749. This work explored early ideas in physics and metaphysics.

What significant scientific contributions did Kant make in his early work?

In his early scientific work, Kant proposed the nebular hypothesis for the formation of the solar system in his 'Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens' (1755). He also correctly deduced the slowing effect of the Moon's gravity on Earth's rotation and suggested that gravity would eventually cause tidal locking. Additionally, he offered an insight into the Coriolis force in his 1756 essay on winds.

How did Kant attempt to explain the 1755 Lisbon earthquake?

In his writings on the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, Kant proposed a naturalistic explanation involving shifts in large caverns filled with hot gases. While not entirely accurate, this was one of the first systematic attempts to explain such events through natural causes rather than supernatural ones.

What was the significance of Kant's 'inaugural dissertation' in 1770?

In 1770, Kant published his inaugural dissertation, 'On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World,' in defense of his appointment as Full Professor at the University of Königsberg. This work introduced key themes of his mature philosophy, including the distinction between sensory and intellectual faculties and the error of 'subreption' (misattributing properties).

How did David Hume influence Kant's philosophical development?

Kant credited David Hume with awakening him from a 'dogmatic slumber' by challenging the certainty of knowledge, particularly regarding concepts like causality and morality. Hume's skepticism, detailed in his 'Treatise on Human Nature,' prompted Kant to develop his critical philosophy to defend the foundations of reason and knowledge.

What was the initial reception of Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason'?

Despite its later acclaim, the initial reception of Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason' (1781) was disappointing. Readers found its length and convoluted style challenging, and Kant was upset by its poor reception. He later wrote the 'Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics' (1783) to clarify its main ideas.

How did Karl Leonhard Reinhold contribute to Kant's fame?

Karl Leonhard Reinhold's public letters in 1786 framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the era's pantheism controversy, specifically linking the 'Critique of Pure Reason' to settling debates about the authority and limits of reason. These widely read letters significantly boosted Kant's public profile, making him the most famous philosopher of his time.

What is the central question Kant sought to answer in the 'Critique of Pure Reason'?

In the 'Critique of Pure Reason,' Kant aimed to answer the question: 'How are synthetic judgments *a priori* possible?' This inquiry was crucial for establishing the possibility of knowledge that is both informative (synthetic) and universally necessary (a priori), thereby countering Hume's skepticism.

What is Kant's 'Copernican Revolution' in philosophy?

Kant's 'Copernican Revolution' in philosophy refers to his proposal that objects of experience conform to our cognitive faculties (sensibility and understanding), rather than our faculties merely conforming to objects. This means that the structure of our knowledge is determined by the inherent conditions of the human mind.

What are the two main sources of human cognition according to Kant?

According to Kant, the two fundamental sources of human cognition are sensibility and understanding. Sensibility provides us with intuitions of objects, while understanding allows us to think about these objects through concepts.

What did Kant mean by the statement 'Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind'?

This famous statement by Kant means that pure concepts from the understanding are empty without sensory input (intuitions) to give them content, and sensory input is blind without the organizing concepts of the understanding to make sense of it. Both are necessary for genuine knowledge.

What are the three 'Analogies of Experience' Kant discusses in the 'Critique of Pure Reason'?

Kant's three Analogies of Experience are: 1) the principle of the persistence of substance, which posits an underlying unchanging substance for all changes; 2) the principle of temporal succession according to causality, stating that all alterations follow a necessary causal rule; and 3) the principle of simultaneity according to reciprocity, asserting that simultaneously existing objects interact causally.

How did Kant's 'Transcendental Dialectic' critique traditional metaphysics?

In the 'Transcendental Dialectic,' Kant critiqued traditional metaphysics by arguing that reason, when it attempts to gain knowledge independent of sensory experience, inevitably falls into contradictions or 'transcendental illusion.' He demonstrated this through his analysis of paralogisms (about the soul), antinomies (about the world), and the ideal of pure reason (about God).

What are the three main 'ideas' of traditional metaphysics that Kant examined in the Transcendental Dialectic?

Kant identified three central ideas of traditional metaphysics that arise from reason's unchecked pursuit of knowledge: the idea of the soul (as the ultimate subject), the idea of the world in its entirety (as a completed causal series), and the idea of God (as the ultimate ground of all possibilities).

What distinction did Kant make between categorical and hypothetical imperatives?

Kant distinguished between hypothetical imperatives, which are commands based on fulfilling contingent desires (e.g., 'If you want to pass the exam, study'), and categorical imperatives, which are unconditional moral commands that apply universally to all rational beings, regardless of their desires (e.g., 'Do not lie').

What are the three main formulations of Kant's categorical imperative?

Kant presented three main formulations of the categorical imperative: the Formula of Universal Law ('Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law'), the Formula of Humanity as End in Itself ('Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means'), and the Formula of Autonomy ('the idea of the will of every rational being as a will giving universal law').

What are the two duties of virtue Kant identified in 'The Doctrine of Virtue'?

In 'The Doctrine of Virtue,' Kant identified two duties of virtue: the duty of self-perfection and the duty of promoting the happiness of others. Self-perfection involves developing one's talents and moral character, while promoting others' happiness means contributing to their well-being.

What were Kant's core principles for political philosophy and achieving perpetual peace?

Kant's political philosophy advocated for republican governments and international organization as keys to perpetual peace. He believed in the rule of law and the state as a union of individuals under law, emphasizing external freedom and legal institutions that allow for the coexistence of everyone's freedom.

What was Kant's critique of direct democracy?

Kant critiqued direct democracy, as understood in his time, by calling it necessarily a form of despotism. He argued that in a direct democracy, where all citizens decide collectively, the minority can be coerced by the majority, which contradicts the principle of universal freedom and self-determination.

How did Kant view the relationship between religion and morality?

Kant's religious views were deeply connected to his moral theory. He believed that morality could serve as a foundation for rational religion, suggesting that adherence to moral duty leads to 'worthiness to be happy.' He criticized external religious practices that he saw as 'counterfeit service' and emphasized the internal, rational aspect of religion.

What is Kant's contribution to aesthetic theory, particularly in the 'Critique of the Power of Judgment'?

In the 'Critique of the Power of Judgment,' Kant explored aesthetic judgments, defining beauty not as a property of an object but as the subjective pleasure derived from the 'free play' of imagination and understanding. He argued that judgments of beauty, while subjective, lay claim to universal validity based on common sense.

How did Kant differentiate between the beautiful and the sublime in aesthetics?

Kant distinguished the beautiful from the sublime by noting that beauty arises from the harmonious interplay of imagination and understanding, resulting in disinterested pleasure. The sublime, however, stems from the imagination's failure to grasp immense or powerful natural phenomena, leading to a feeling of awe and a recognition of reason's superiority over sensibility.

What was Kant's pragmatic approach to anthropology?

Kant's pragmatic approach to anthropology focused on what humans 'can and should make of themselves,' exploring human nature through empirical observation and analysis of character and behavior. This contrasted with a purely physiological approach that focused on what nature makes of humans.

What is the significance of Kant's 'transcendental deduction of the categories'?

The 'transcendental deduction of the categories' is considered Kant's most important and complex argument in the 'Critique of Pure Reason.' It aims to demonstrate the universal and necessary validity of the pure concepts of the understanding (the categories, like substance and causality) for all possible objects of experience.

What did Kant mean by the 'transcendental unity of apperception'?

The 'transcendental unity of apperception' refers to Kant's principle that all our representations must be capable of being accompanied by the 'I think' to be considered part of our consciousness. This unity of self-consciousness is a necessary condition for having coherent experience and for applying the categories of the understanding.

How did Kant's work influence later philosophical movements?

Kant's ideas profoundly influenced subsequent philosophy, including German idealism, Marxism, phenomenology, existentialism, and critical theory. His concepts of the active human subject, the limits of knowledge, moral autonomy, and treating persons as ends in themselves became foundational for many later thinkers.

What is the legacy of Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason'?

The 'Critique of Pure Reason' is considered one of the most significant works in modern philosophy. It revolutionized epistemology and metaphysics by shifting the focus to the structure of the human mind as the condition for knowledge and experience.

How did Kant's ideas on mathematics influence later philosophical schools?

Kant's view that mathematical truths are synthetic *a priori* knowledge influenced schools like intuitionism in the philosophy of mathematics, which emphasized constructive proof and opposed formalism and logicism.

What is the meaning of Kant's famous quote, 'Two things fill my mind with ever new and increasing admiration and reverence...'?

This quote, 'Two things fill my mind with ever new and increasing admiration and reverence... the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me,' reflects Kant's awe at both the vastness of the universe understood through reason and the profound significance of the internal moral law derived from reason itself.

What is the 'thing-in-itself' in Kantian philosophy?

The 'thing-in-itself' (or *Ding an sich*) refers to reality as it exists independently of our perception and cognitive faculties. Kant argued that while we can infer its existence as the source of our sensory experiences, its true nature remains unknowable to us because our experience is always structured by our minds.

What is the difference between Kant's 'transcendental idealism' and Berkeley's 'subjective idealism'?

While both Kant and Berkeley argued that reality is mind-dependent, Kant distinguished his 'transcendental idealism' from Berkeley's 'subjective idealism.' Kant maintained that space, time, and categories are necessary, universal conditions for experience, contributing to an objective phenomenal world, whereas Berkeley argued that objects only exist insofar as they are perceived by a mind.

How did Kant's political philosophy influence the concept of democratic peace theory?

Kant's essay 'Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch' is considered a precursor to modern democratic peace theory. His arguments for an international federation of republics and cooperation laid groundwork for the idea that democratic states are less likely to engage in war with each other.

What was Kant's view on the relationship between civilization and culture?

In 'Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose,' Kant distinguished between civilization, which he saw as the development of social order and material progress driven by human unsociableness, and culture, which he associated with the moral improvement of the mind and the pursuit of refined values.

What is the significance of Kant's work on 'Sittlichkeit'?

Kant's concept of 'Sittlichkeit' refers to the ethical life or moral custom embedded within a community's institutions and practices. It represents a development from his earlier focus on abstract moral duties (*Pflicht*) to a more concrete understanding of morality within the social and historical context.

What is the 'Analytic of Concepts' in Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason'?

The 'Analytic of Concepts' is the first part of the 'Transcendental Analytic' in Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason.' It focuses on establishing the universal and necessary validity of the pure concepts of the understanding, known as the categories, which are essential for structuring experience and forming judgments about objects.

What is the 'Transcendental Dialectic' in Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason'?

The 'Transcendental Dialectic' is the second major division of the 'Transcendental Logic' in Kant's 'Critique of Pure Reason.' It critically examines the limits of reason, exposing the 'transcendental illusions' that arise when reason attempts to apply concepts beyond the bounds of possible sensory experience.

What are Kant's 'paralogisms'?

Kant's 'paralogisms' are fallacious arguments that pure reason makes when attempting to derive knowledge about the soul or self from purely rational principles, independent of experience. He identified several such fallacies concerning the soul's substantiality, simplicity, and identity.

What are Kant's 'antinomies of pure reason'?

Kant's 'antinomies of pure reason' are pairs of opposing, yet seemingly equally valid, conclusions that reason reaches when it tries to understand the totality of the world (cosmology). He presented four such antinomies, concerning the finitude or infinitude of the universe in space and time, the divisibility of matter, the existence of freedom, and the necessity of a first cause or being.

What is the 'ideal of pure reason' in Kant's philosophy?

The 'ideal of pure reason' refers to reason's attempt to conceive of an ultimate reality or a perfect being, often associated with God. Kant analyzed traditional arguments for God's existence (ontological, cosmological, teleological) within this section, ultimately arguing that they fail as proofs but may have regulative value for morality.

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Introduction to Kant

A Central Enlightenment Figure

Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the most pivotal thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment. His extensive and systematic works across epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have cemented his status as a profoundly influential figure in modern Western philosophy.^[7]

Königsberg and Beyond

Born in Königsberg, Prussia, Kant spent his entire professional life within its academic sphere. His philosophical endeavors sought to reconcile the mechanistic worldview of modern science with the foundations of morality and religion, aiming to secure human autonomy.

Global Philosophical Impact

Kant's influence extends across numerous philosophical domains. His doctrine of transcendental idealism posits that space and time are inherent structures of human intuition, shaping our experience of phenomena. This framework critically engaged with skepticism and laid the groundwork for subsequent philosophical movements.

Early Life and Education

Humble Beginnings

Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg, Prussia, to a family of Lutheran faith. His early education was rigorous and disciplined, emphasizing Latin and religious instruction. Despite a strict upbringing, Kant demonstrated exceptional academic aptitude from a young age.

University and Tutelage

At sixteen, Kant enrolled at the University of Königsberg. Under the guidance of Martin Knutzen, he engaged with the rationalist philosophies of Leibniz and Wolff, while also being introduced to the scientific advancements of Isaac Newton. This period shaped his early views on metaphysics and the limits of human knowledge.

Academic Career Path

After his father's death interrupted his studies, Kant worked as a private tutor before returning to Königsberg. He obtained his license to lecture at the university in 1755, beginning a long and influential career as a professor, covering diverse subjects from physics and mathematics to logic and metaphysics.

Foundational Works

Early Scientific Contributions

Kant's early work extended beyond philosophy into natural sciences. In 1755, he proposed the nebular hypothesis for the formation of the solar system and suggested the existence of other galaxies. His analysis of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake was one of the first attempts to explain such phenomena through natural causes.

Philosophical Inquiries

By the 1760s, Kant produced seminal philosophical works like The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures and The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God. These writings explored logic, metaphysics, and the nature of knowledge, foreshadowing his later critical project.

The Road to the Critique

Kant's appointment as Full Professor in 1770 marked a turning point. His inaugural dissertation, On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World, introduced key themes of his mature philosophy, including the distinction between intellectual thought and sensory receptivity, setting the stage for his magnum opus.

The Critique of Pure Reason

A Paradigm Shift

Published in 1781 (revised 1787), the Critique of Pure Reason is Kant's most celebrated work. It addresses the fundamental question: "How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?" Kant argued that human knowledge is a synthesis of sensory experience and innate conceptual structures, fundamentally altering the landscape of epistemology and metaphysics.^[67]

The Copernican Revolution

Kant proposed a "Copernican revolution" in philosophy, suggesting that objects conform to our cognition rather than the other way around. He posited that space, time, and the categories of understanding are not properties of things-in-themselves but rather necessary conditions for any possible experience.^[82]

Key Concepts

Kant distinguished between analytic and synthetic judgments, and between knowledge a priori (independent of experience) and a posteriori (derived from experience). He argued that synthetic a priori judgments, foundational to mathematics and natural science, are possible due to the mind's active role in structuring reality.

Kant's critical project aimed to establish the limits of human reason and secure the possibility of knowledge and morality against skepticism. Central to this were:

Transcendental Idealism: The view that space and time are forms of intuition, and the categories are forms of understanding, which structure our experience of phenomena but not things-in-themselves.
Categories of Understanding: Pure concepts like substance and causality, which are necessary for organizing sensory data into coherent objects of experience.
Antinomies: Demonstrations of how reason, when unbound by experience, can fall into contradictory conclusions, highlighting the limits of speculative metaphysics.

Developing the System

Moral Philosophy

Kant's ethical framework, detailed in works like the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785) and the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), posits that morality stems from reason itself. The categorical imperative dictates that one should act only according to maxims that can be universalized, treating humanity always as an end in itself.^[134]

Political Thought

In Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795) and The Metaphysics of Morals (1797), Kant outlined his political philosophy. He advocated for republican governments, the rule of law, and an international federation of states to ensure lasting peace, viewing this as a natural progression towards humanity's moral destiny.^[154]

Religion and Reason

Kant's Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason (1793) explored the compatibility of religion with reason, arguing that true religion aligns with morality. He critiqued external religious practices that overshadowed conscientious adherence to moral principles, emphasizing an inner, rational faith.^[41]

Core Philosophical Tenets

The Structure of Knowledge

Kant's epistemology, centered on transcendental idealism, posits that our knowledge is a product of both sensory input and the mind's inherent structures. We do not access "things-in-themselves" but rather phenomena, appearances shaped by our cognitive faculties.^[90]

The Categories and Principles

The "Analytic of Principles" in the first Critique details how the categories of understanding, such as causality and substance, are applied to sensory data. Kant's "Analogies of Experience" provide principles that govern temporal succession and simultaneity, grounding our understanding of the empirical world.^[110]

Reason's Limits and Potential

While the "Transcendental Dialectic" critiques the excesses of speculative metaphysics, Kant also recognized the regulative function of reason's ideas (soul, world, God). These ideas, though not objects of knowledge, guide inquiry and are essential for moral faith and hope.^[118]

Moral Imperatives

The Good Will

For Kant, the only intrinsic good is the "good will," which acts out of duty, not inclination. Morality is grounded in reason and expressed through the categorical imperative, a universal moral law that binds rational agents autonomously.^[129]

Humanity as an End

Kant's Formula of Humanity emphasizes treating oneself and others always as ends in themselves, never merely as means. This principle underscores the inherent dignity and autonomy of rational beings, forming the bedrock of his deontological ethics.

Formulations of the Imperative

Kant proposed several formulations of the categorical imperative, including the Formula of Universal Law (acting according to maxims that can become universal laws) and the Formula of Autonomy (the will as a universal lawgiver). These formulations aim to capture the essence of moral duty.

Kant presented multiple, purportedly equivalent, formulations of the categorical imperative:

Universal Law: "Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you at the same time can will that it become a universal law."
Humanity as End: "So act that you use humanity, as much in your person as in the person of every other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means."
Autonomy/Realm of Ends: "Act in accordance with maxims of a universally legislative member for a merely possible realm of ends."

Political Philosophy

Perpetual Peace

Kant envisioned a world order based on republican constitutions and international law to achieve perpetual peace. He argued that nature itself, through the inherent discord among humans, drives towards this goal, facilitated by the establishment of just political structures.^[156]

The Rule of Law

Central to Kant's political thought is the concept of the Rechtsstaat (state of law). He defined right as "any action that can coexist with the freedom of everyone else in accordance with a universal law." This necessitates public legal institutions to ensure external freedom.^[164]

Against Direct Democracy

Kant expressed reservations about direct democracy, viewing it as a potential form of despotism where the majority could override individual rights. He favored representative, republican forms of government that uphold the rule of law and protect individual liberties.

Reason and Religion

Rational Faith

Kant sought to reconcile religion with reason, arguing that true religion is found in morality. He critiqued religious practices that emphasized external ritual or superstition over the conscientious adherence to moral principles, advocating for a rational faith grounded in ethical duty.^[167]

Critiquing Institutional Religion

In Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason, Kant criticized religious organizations that promoted "counterfeit service." He believed that the essence of religion lay in the moral disposition of the individual, rather than adherence to dogma or hierarchical structures.

Morality as the Basis

Kant's moral theology posits that the ultimate end of religion is to foster moral disposition. While he rejected proofs for God's existence based solely on pure reason, he maintained that moral faith is a necessary postulate for practical reason, providing a foundation for hope and the pursuit of the highest good.

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References

Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the Critique of Pure Reason (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in Logic.

For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection in the revised edition of Henry Allison's Kant's Transcendental Idealism.

Strawson, P.F., The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.

As noted by Allen W. Wood in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783â84.

R.K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", Kantian Review 13(1), March 2008, pp. 190â193.

Rosa Kohlheim, Volker Kohlheim, Duden â Familiennamen: Herkunft und Bedeutung von 20.000 Nachnamen, Bibliographisches Institut & F.A. Brockhaus AG, Mannheim 2005, p. 365.

Copleston, Frederick Charles (2003). The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant. p. 146.

Sassen, Brigitte. Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy. 2000.

Peirce, C.S., Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant and his Refutation of Idealism' p. 15

Kant, Immanuel, Logic, G.B. JÃ¤sche (ed), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (translators), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv.

Immanuel Kant and the Bo(a)rders of Art History Mark Cheetham, in The Subjects of Art History: Historical Objects in Contemporary Perspectives, p. 16

di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In Religion and Rational Theology. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with StÃ¤udlin.

Susanne Bobzien, 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik Vol. 1, 1988, 193â220.

Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In Practical Philosophy. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355.

Manfred Riedel, Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy, Cambridge 1984

Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581â582

Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603

Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy. Harvard University Press, p. 9.

E.g., Walsh, W.H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322.

For example Peter Byrne, who wrote about Kant's relationship with deism. Byrne, Peter (2007), Kant on God, London: Ashgate, p. 159.

Wood, Allen W. (1970), Kant's moral religion, London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16.

Westphal, Merold (2010), The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion, in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), A Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135.

See e.g., Lawrence Pasternack, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239â240.

Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", Kant-Studien 83.2, pp. 129â148.

German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973.

Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in Philosophical Fragments. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44.

Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in The Philosophy of Art, ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995.

For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", The Review of Metaphysics 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3â22.

Sellars, Wilfrid, Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967

Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115â148.

Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', The Review of Symbolic Logic, 4 (2011), 254â289.

The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, Kant: Natural Science, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309).

Martin Schonfeld, The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74.

Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102).

Available online at Archive.org.

English translation available online at Wikisource.

s:The Critique of Judgment

A full list of references for this article are available at the Immanuel Kant Wikipedia page

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Kant's Enlightenment

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Introduction to Kant ℹ️

💡 A Central Enlightenment Figure

🏛️ Königsberg and Beyond

🌍 Global Philosophical Impact

Early Life and Education 👶

📜 Humble Beginnings

🏫 University and Tutelage

👨‍🏫 Academic Career Path

Foundational Works 📖

🔭 Early Scientific Contributions

🤔 Philosophical Inquiries

❓ The Road to the Critique

The Critique of Pure Reason ⚖️

🤯 A Paradigm Shift

🔄 The Copernican Revolution

📚 Key Concepts

Developing the System ✍️

💡 Moral Philosophy

🕊️ Political Thought

🙏 Religion and Reason

Core Philosophical Tenets 🧐

🧠 The Structure of Knowledge

⚖️ The Categories and Principles

↔️ Reason's Limits and Potential

Moral Imperatives ✅

❤️ The Good Will

🤝 Humanity as an End

📜 Formulations of the Imperative

Political Philosophy 🏛️

🕊️ Perpetual Peace

📜 The Rule of Law

🚫 Against Direct Democracy

Reason and Religion 🙏

💡 Rational Faith

⛪ Critiquing Institutional Religion

✨ Morality as the Basis

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Introduction to Kant

A Central Enlightenment Figure

Königsberg and Beyond

Global Philosophical Impact

Early Life and Education

Humble Beginnings

University and Tutelage

Academic Career Path

Foundational Works

Early Scientific Contributions

Philosophical Inquiries

The Road to the Critique

The Critique of Pure Reason

A Paradigm Shift

The Copernican Revolution

Key Concepts

Developing the System

Moral Philosophy

Political Thought

Religion and Reason

Core Philosophical Tenets

The Structure of Knowledge

The Categories and Principles

Reason's Limits and Potential

Moral Imperatives

The Good Will

Humanity as an End

Formulations of the Imperative

Political Philosophy

Perpetual Peace

The Rule of Law

Against Direct Democracy

Reason and Religion

Rational Faith

Critiquing Institutional Religion

Morality as the Basis

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice