What are Indian religions, and what other terms are used to describe them?

Indian religions, also referred to as Indic religions or Dharmic religions, are those spiritual traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, are also categorized as Eastern religions. While connected by the history of India, they encompass a diverse range of religious communities and are not exclusively confined to the Indian subcontinent.

What is the approximate global population of major Indian religions according to the provided survey?

According to a 2020 survey, Hinduism has approximately 1.25 billion followers, Buddhism has around 320 million, Sikhism has about 30 million, and Jainism has approximately 6 million followers. The total population of these major Indian religions is estimated to be around 1.61 billion.

What evidence exists for prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent?

Evidence for prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent comes from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings, such as those found at Bhimbetka, which depict dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists in the Indus River Valley buried their dead in ways that suggest spiritual practices, including beliefs about an afterlife and magic. Other sites, like the Bhimbetka rock shelters and Kupgal petroglyphs, also contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualized music.

What were the key features identified by John Marshall regarding the religion of the Indus Valley Civilization?

John Marshall, in his 1931 work, identified several prominent features of the Indus religion. These included the veneration of a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess, the deification or veneration of animals and plants, symbolic representations of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni), and the use of baths and water in religious practices. However, his interpretations have been debated and disputed by later scholars.

What is the significance of the Pashupati Seal from the Indus Valley Civilization?

The Pashupati Seal, found in the Indus Valley Civilization, depicts a seated figure with a horned headdress surrounded by animals. John Marshall identified this figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva, associating it with asceticism, yoga, and the linga, and noting his epithet 'lord of all animals' (Pashupati). However, this interpretation is contested, with some scholars suggesting the figure could represent other deities or figures from different traditions, or that the seal's interpretation is speculative due to the undeciphered Indus script.

What is the documented beginning of the history of Indian religions?

The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, which encompasses the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryan peoples. These practices were later collected and redacted into the Vedas and the Agamas of Dravidian origin, with the Vedic period of their composition and commentary lasting from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.

What are the Upanishads, and what is their significance in relation to the Vedas?

The Upanishads are texts that summarize the philosophical portions of the Vedas. They are also referred to as Vedanta, meaning 'the last chapters, parts of the Veda' or 'the object, the highest purpose of the Veda.' The early Upanishads, some composed before the 6th century BCE, contain the earliest mentions of yoga and moksha, and they represent a significant development in Vedic thought.

What characterized the Shramana period in ancient India?

The Shramana period, spanning from approximately 800 to 200 BCE, marked a significant turning point between Vedic and Puranic Hinduism. This period saw the rise of the Shramana movement, which often challenged Vedic and Upanishadic concepts. This movement matured into Jainism and Buddhism and led to a division in Indian religions between astika (Veda-venerating) and nastika (non-Veda-venerating) traditions, though both shared concepts like samsara and moksha.

How did the Vedic religion evolve, and what is the relationship between Vedic religion and Hinduism?

The Vedic religion evolved into what is now known as Hinduism. While some modern Hindu scholars use 'Vedic religion' synonymously with 'Hinduism,' others note that the Vedic religion is distinct from modern Hinduism, though it can be treated as its predecessor. The ritualistic traditions of the Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Shrauta tradition.

What were the core concepts emphasized in the Rigveda during the Early Vedic period?

During the Early Vedic period, central concepts in the Rigveda included Satya and Rta. Satya, derived from 'Sat' (that which really exists), relates to truth and being. Rta signifies the principle of natural order, rule, and truth that governs the universe. Adherence to Rta was believed to lead to progress, while its violation would result in punishment.

What is the historical significance of the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE)?

The Middle Vedic period is significant for the composition of the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts. During this time, the Brahmans gained power as intermediaries in religious practices.

What is Sanskritization, and how has it influenced Indian society?

Sanskritization is a process observed since Vedic times where people from various societal strata adapted their religious and social practices to Brahmanic norms. This process is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods described in Sanskrit texts, influencing the broader cultural and religious landscape of India.

What impact did the Shramanic tradition have on Indian religions?

The Shramanic tradition, which rose to prominence between 700-500 BCE, challenged the orthodoxy of Vedic rituals. It contributed to the development of concepts like samsara (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle), and gave rise to major religions like Jainism and Buddhism, which differed from Vedic traditions.

What are the five vows emphasized by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism?

Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, emphasized five vows: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing), aparigraha (non-attachment), and brahmacharya (celibacy, though this is often associated with Mahavira specifically and not always listed as one of the five core vows for all Jains in every context, but is a key principle). The text specifically mentions ahimsa, satya, asteya, and aparigraha.

What is the historical origin of Buddhism, and where did it spread?

Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince who became an ascetic. It spread beyond India through missionaries and became more widespread in Southeast and East Asia, while experiencing a decline in India itself, though it survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

What is the significance of the Gupta period in the context of Indian religions?

The Gupta period (c. 320–550 CE) is considered a 'Golden Age' for Hinduism and saw significant developments in Tantrism. While the Gupta rulers performed Vedic sacrifices, they also patronized Buddhism. This era also witnessed the emergence of the first Hindu temples and a rejuvenation of Brahmanical culture.

What is Vedanta, and how did it develop from the Upanishads?

Vedanta, meaning 'the conclusion of the Vedas,' refers to the philosophical school that interprets the Upanishads. It forms the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism. The Upanishads themselves launched critiques of ritualistic practices, and Vedanta systems further developed these philosophical ideas.

What are the six schools of Hindu philosophy that were formally codified after 200 CE?

After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. Hinduism, while often polytheistic or monotheistic, also accommodated atheistic schools like Charvaka.

What is the historical context and significance of the Bhakti movement?

The Bhakti movement, which gained prominence between the 14th and 17th centuries, emphasized devotion to God through love, accessible to all regardless of social status. Spearheaded by figures like Ramananda, Kabir, and Meera Bai, it led to a flourishing of devotional literature in vernacular languages across India.

What is Lingayatism, and who was its founder?

Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition established in India in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna. Its adherents, known as Lingayats, follow a theology centered on the worship of the Ishtalinga, an emblem symbolizing the absolute reality. Lingayatism has a significant influence, particularly in the state of Karnataka in South India.

How did the concept of 'Dharmic religions' emerge and what does 'Dharma' signify?

The term 'Dharmic religions' is used to highlight the similarities between Indian religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, often placing them under a broader umbrella of 'Dharma.' Dharma itself has various meanings depending on the context, including duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, and conduct. The emphasis on Dharma as a unifying concept gained prominence in modern Indian thought, partly as a response to Western notions of 'religion'.

What common soteriological goal do Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share?

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share the concept of moksha, which signifies liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). While they agree on this ultimate goal, they differ in their specific interpretations of the exact nature of this liberation.

What are some common ritualistic traits observed across Indian religions?

Common ritualistic traits found in several Indian religions include the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka (prominent in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism), the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion by married women, and various marital rituals. Additionally, many classical narratives and Puranas exist in Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain versions.

How is the figure of Rama depicted across different Indian religions?

Rama is a significant heroic figure across multiple Indian religions. In Hinduism, he is revered as a divine incarnation in the form of a princely king. In Buddhism, he is depicted as a Bodhisattva-incarnate, and in Jainism, he is considered a perfect human being. The Ramayana narrative also appears in various Buddhist versions across different cultures.

What is the Astika and Nastika categorization, and how is it applied to Indian religions?

The Astika and Nastika categorization is a traditional way of classifying Indian religions based on their acceptance of the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures. Astika schools, such as the six orthodox schools of Hinduism (Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta), accept Vedic authority. Nastika traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka, do not accept Vedic authority.

How did the Indian legal system, particularly the Hindu Marriage Act, classify Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs?

The Indian legal system, as reflected in the 1955 Hindu Marriage Act and the Indian Constitution, includes Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs within the definition of 'Hindus.' The law states that references to Hindus should be construed as including persons professing the Sikh, Jain, or Buddhist religion, and defines Hindus broadly as anyone not Christian, Muslim, Parsee, or Jewish.

What was the historical context of the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India?

Jainism and Buddhism rose to prominence between 700-500 BCE, particularly in the Magadha kingdom. This period, known as the Shramanic period, saw these traditions challenge Vedic orthodoxy and develop distinct philosophical concepts, reflecting older cosmological and anthropological views from northeastern India.

What role did Emperor Ashoka play in the spread of Buddhism?

Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, in the 3rd century BCE, patronized Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent. He played a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism by sending missionaries abroad, which allowed the religion to disseminate across Asia.

How did the Gupta Empire influence the religious landscape of India?

The Gupta Empire, during its 'Golden Age' (c. 320-650 CE), saw the flourishing of Mahayana Buddhism and Tantrism. Simultaneously, the Gupta Dynasty's patronage led to a rejuvenation of Brahmanical culture, reinforcing the position of Brahmans and the emergence of the first Hindu temples.

What is the significance of the Upanishads in challenging ritualistic practices?

The Upanishads, particularly the later ones, launched significant critiques against the emphasis on ritual prevalent in earlier Vedic traditions. Texts like the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad referred to those who worship deities other than the Self as 'domestic animals of the gods,' and the Mundaka Upanishad critically compared sacrifices to an unsafe boat, highlighting a shift towards philosophical inquiry.

What is the historical basis for linking the Indus Valley Civilization to later Indian religions?

The historical link between the Indus Valley Civilization and later Indian religions is based on identifying potential precursors to deities and religious practices found in Hinduism. While archaeological evidence like seals and figurines is open to interpretation, scholars like John Marshall proposed connections to figures like Shiva and the worship of a Mother Goddess, though these interpretations are debated.

What was the 'Hindu synthesis' or 'Brahmanic synthesis' that occurred between the late Upanishadic period and the Gupta Empire?

The 'Hindu synthesis,' also called 'Brahmanic synthesis' or 'orthodox synthesis,' refers to a period of consolidation in Hinduism from roughly 500 BCE to the rise of the Guptas (c. 320–467 CE). During this time, Hinduism developed its self-definitions through interaction with other religions, such as Buddhism and Jainism, and with foreign peoples, integrating various philosophical teachings and practices.

What is the meaning of 'Dharma' in the context of Indian religions?

In the context of Indian religions, 'Dharma' is a core concept with various meanings depending on the situation. It can signify duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, or proper conduct. The shared understanding of Dharma contributes to the classification of these religions as 'Dharmic traditions'.

How did the concept of 'maya-vada' influence Indian thought, according to Scheepers?

According to Scheepers, the concept of 'maya-vada,' where the Atman and Brahman are viewed as 'pure knowledge-consciousness,' became dominant in Indian thought. This philosophical shift, influenced by Buddhist thought, marked a departure from earlier notions of Atman and Brahman as a 'living substance'.

What was the impact of the decline of Buddhism in India during the medieval period?

Between 400 and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded significantly as Buddhism experienced a decline in India. While Buddhism eventually became effectively extinct in India, it survived and flourished in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and spread further into Southeast and East Asia.

Who were the Alvars and Nayanars, and what was their significance in the Bhakti movement?

The Alvars (Tamil poet-saints devoted to Vishnu) and the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) were key proponents of the Bhakti movement in South India, active between the 6th and 9th centuries CE. They espoused 'emotional devotion' or bhakti through their songs, emphasizing love for God and making spiritual devotion accessible to all social strata.

What is the historical significance of the period from 500 BCE to 200 BCE for Indian religions?

The period from 500 BCE to 200 BCE is considered crucial for the development of Indian religions. It saw the rise of the Shramanic tradition, the composition of the Upanishads, and the codification of key concepts like karma, samsara, and moksha, laying the groundwork for classical Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

What is the meaning of 'astika' and 'nastika' in the context of Indian philosophy?

'Astika' and 'Nastika' are terms used to categorize Indian philosophical traditions. Astika generally refers to those who accept the authority of the Vedas, while Nastika refers to those who do not. This classification is not always straightforward, as some traditions may share concepts while differing on Vedic authority.

How did the concept of 'Dharma' evolve from the Vedic period to later Indian thought?

In Vedic thought, 'Dharma' was conceived as an aspect of 'Rta,' the cosmic order. Later, particularly from the late Vedic period onwards, 'Dharma' evolved to encompass broader concepts of duty, righteousness, and spiritual teachings, becoming a central unifying concept across various Indian religions.

What was the role of Brahmanas in the Middle Vedic period?

During the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE), the Brahmans became powerful intermediaries in religious practices. They were associated with the composition of mantras and Brahmana texts, solidifying their influential position within the evolving Vedic religious system.

What does the term 'Vedanta' signify, and how is it connected to the Upanishads?

Vedanta, which translates to 'the end of the Vedas,' refers to the philosophical conclusions and teachings found within the Upanishads. These texts are considered the speculative and philosophical core of classical Hinduism, and Vedanta emerged as the school of thought dedicated to interpreting them.

What is the historical significance of the period from 200 BCE to 500 CE for Hinduism?

The period from 200 BCE to 500 CE, often referred to as the Epic and Early Puranic period, was crucial for the development of Hinduism. It saw the composition of major epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, the writing of the first Puranas, and the rise of devotional practices centered around deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga.

What is the general meaning of 'moksha' within the context of Indian religions?

Moksha, a concept shared across Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, refers to liberation. Specifically, it signifies freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, often termed samsara. The precise nature of this liberation, however, varies among these traditions.

How did the concept of divine kingship manifest in ancient Tamilakam?

In ancient Tamilakam, kings were considered divine and held significant religious importance, often seen as 'the representative of God on earth.' Their residences were referred to as 'koyil,' meaning 'residence of a god,' and they received ritualistic worship. This concept influenced later Hindu traditions, integrating royal figures and their abodes into religious narratives and practices.

What is the significance of the 'Dharmic religions' term in highlighting similarities between Indian religions?

The term 'Dharmic religions' is used by some scholars, like Frawley and Malhotra, to emphasize the shared concepts and underlying unity among religions originating from the Indian subcontinent, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. This perspective suggests a broader cultural and spiritual family resemblance among these traditions.

What criticism has been raised against the periodization of Indian history into Ancient, Medieval, and Modern periods?

The periodization of Indian history into Ancient, Medieval, and Modern categories has been criticized for potentially overemphasizing ruling dynasties and foreign invasions, thereby neglecting social and economic continuities. It also overlooks the fact that Muslim conquests, for instance, occurred over centuries and did not uniformly impact the entire subcontinent.

What is the historical significance of the Shramana movement?

The Shramana movement, active between 800 and 200 BCE, represented a significant reformist religious movement in ancient India that ran parallel to, yet distinct from, Vedic traditions. It challenged established Vedic and Upanishadic concepts and is credited with the maturation of Jainism and Buddhism, contributing to the philosophical divergence within Indian religions.

How did the Gupta Empire's patronage affect Buddhism in India?

Although the Gupta rulers performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, they also patronized Buddhism. This patronage allowed Buddhism to maintain a significant presence in various regions of India until around the 12th century CE, providing an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.

What is the meaning of 'Sanskritization' in the context of Indian social and religious history?

Sanskritization refers to a long-standing process, dating back to Vedic times, where individuals and groups across the Indian subcontinent adopted Brahmanical norms in their social and religious life. This often involved identifying local deities with figures from Sanskrit texts, thereby integrating diverse traditions into a broader Brahmanical framework.

What role did the epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana, play during the Epic and Early Puranic Period?

During the Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE), the Mahabharata and Ramayana emerged as two of Hinduism's most revered epics. These texts, along with the Puranas, provided mythical and divine interpretations of the world and contributed to the devotional practices centered around major deities like Shiva and Vishnu.

What is the significance of the term 'Dharmic religions' in contemporary discourse?

The term 'Dharmic religions' is sometimes used to group religions originating from the Indian subcontinent, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, highlighting their shared concepts and cultural heritage. This term emphasizes similarities and can be seen as a way to frame these traditions within a broader, interconnected spiritual landscape.

Indian Religions Wiki: The Dharmic Foundations: An Exploration of Indian Religions

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Introduction

Defining Dharmic Traditions

Indian religions, often termed Dharmic religions, encompass the diverse spiritual and philosophical traditions that originated within the Indian subcontinent. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. While deeply interconnected through the historical trajectory of India, they represent distinct religious communities with global reach, extending far beyond their geographical origins.

Global Demographics

As of recent estimates, the major Indian religions collectively account for a significant portion of the world's religious adherents:

Hinduism: Approximately 1.25 billion followers, representing about 16.0% of the global population.
Buddhism: Approximately 320 million followers, constituting about 7.10% of the global population.
Sikhism: Approximately 30 million followers, representing about 0.35% of the global population.
Jainism: Approximately 6 million followers, representing about 0.06% of the global population.

These figures highlight the profound demographic and cultural influence of these traditions worldwide.

Historical Roots

The documented history of Indian religions commences with the Vedic period, tracing back to the religious practices of early Indo-Aryan peoples. Evidence of prehistoric religious activity, including Mesolithic rock paintings and Neolithic burial practices, suggests a long lineage of spiritual expression on the subcontinent, predating even the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Foundational Origins

Prevedic Era

The earliest evidence of religious practices in the Indian subcontinent stems from Mesolithic rock art, depicting rituals and dances. Neolithic agriculturalists in the Indus Valley buried their dead with indications of spiritual beliefs concerning the afterlife and magic. Sites like Bhimbetka and Kupgal offer glimpses into these early spiritual expressions through rock art portraying religious rites.

Indus Valley Civilisation

The religion of the Indus Valley people (c. 3300–1300 BCE) remains subject to interpretation due to undeciphered script and limited evidence. Archaeological findings, such as the 'Pashupati Seal' and female figurines, have led to theories linking them to proto-Shiva and Mother Goddess worship, precursors to later Hindu traditions. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely considered to have served a ritual purification purpose.

Vedic Period

The historical Vedic religion, practiced by early Indo-Aryans (c. 1750–500 BCE), is documented in the Vedas. Worship centered on Yajna (sacrifices) accompanied by Vedic hymns. Key concepts like Satya (truth/being) and Rta (cosmic order) formed the philosophical bedrock, influencing the development of later Dharmic thought. The Brahmans gained prominence as intermediaries in ritualistic practices.

Historical Trajectory

Shramanic Reformations

The Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE) marked a significant turning point, challenging Vedic orthodoxy. This era saw the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, emphasizing concepts like Samsara (cycle of rebirth) and Moksha (liberation). These movements often defied traditional Vedic notions of the soul and ultimate reality, offering alternative paths to spiritual realization.

Dravidian Cultural Synthesis

Early Dravidian religion, characterized by Agamic traditions, involved the worship of tutelary deities and reverence for nature. Linguistic analysis reveals Dravidian influences on early Vedic language and religious practices. This cultural exchange contributed to a synthesis that shaped later Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions, evident in shared iconography and philosophical concepts.

Epic and Puranic Consolidation

The period from 200 BCE to 500 CE witnessed the composition of foundational epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, alongside the Puranas. This era saw the consolidation of classical Hinduism, with the deification of deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga, and the development of devotional (Bhakti) movements. Tantrism also emerged and flourished during this transformative period.

Medieval Developments

From approximately 500 CE onwards, India experienced decentralization, leading to regionalization of religious practices and increased influence of local cults and languages. While Brahmanical Hinduism experienced rejuvenation, particularly during the Gupta Empire, alternative traditions like Buddhism continued to evolve. The medieval period also saw the rise of new movements, including the foundation of Sikhism in the 15th century.

Core Philosophies

Vedanta and Upanishads

The Upanishads, composed during the late Vedic period (c. 850–500 BCE), represent the speculative and philosophical culmination of the Vedas, forming the basis of Vedanta. They critically examined Vedic ritualism, emphasizing introspection and the nature of ultimate reality (Brahman) and the self (Atman), laying groundwork for classical Hindu philosophy.

Samsara and Moksha

Central to many Indian religions are the concepts of Samsara, the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, and Moksha, the ultimate liberation from this cycle. These ideas, prominent in Shramanic traditions and later integrated into Hinduism, underscore the pursuit of spiritual freedom and transcendence.

Astika and Nastika

Indian philosophical systems are broadly categorized into Astika (those accepting Vedic authority) and Nastika (those rejecting it). Astika schools include the six orthodox Darshanas (Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, Vedanta). Nastika traditions, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka, offered distinct critiques and alternative metaphysical frameworks.

Materialism and Atheism

While often associated with spiritual pursuits, Indian philosophical traditions also encompass materialistic and atheistic viewpoints. The Charvaka school, for instance, espoused a thoroughly materialistic philosophy, challenging prevailing religious doctrines. Even within otherwise theistic frameworks, schools like Samkhya and Mimamsa are sometimes considered atheistic due to their focus on naturalistic explanations or ritual efficacy over divine intervention.

Major Schools & Traditions

Hinduism

Encompassing a vast spectrum of beliefs and practices, Hinduism is often seen as a synthesis of various traditions, including Vedic religion and Dravidian influences. It is characterized by concepts like Dharma, Karma, Samsara, and Moksha, and venerates a diverse pantheon of deities, including Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi, often understood through the lens of Vedanta philosophy.

Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), Buddhism emphasizes enlightenment and liberation from suffering through the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. It spread widely across Asia, influencing diverse cultures, and is broadly divided into Theravada and Mahayana traditions, each with distinct philosophical interpretations and practices.

Jainism

Jainism, tracing its lineage to Tirthankaras like Parshvanatha and Mahavira, emphasizes non-violence (Ahimsa), truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession. Its adherents pursue liberation through asceticism and strict ethical conduct, aiming to break free from the cycle of Samsara.

Sikhism

Founded by Guru Nanak and developed through nine successive Gurus, Sikhism emphasizes the oneness of God, equality of all humankind, and selfless service. Its teachings are compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture, and its adherents originate primarily from the Punjab region.

Chronological Frameworks

Historical Divisions

The history of Indian religions is often periodized to understand their evolution. Common frameworks include:

Prevedic: Pre-1750 BCE (Indus Valley, Neolithic, Mesolithic evidence)
Vedic: c. 1750–500 BCE (Composition of Vedas, Brahmanas, early Upanishads)
Shramanic: c. 800–200 BCE (Rise of Jainism and Buddhism, challenge to Vedic orthodoxy)
Classical/Puranic: c. 200 BCE – 1100 CE (Codification of Vedanta, Epics, Puranas, rise of Tantra)
Medieval: c. 1100–1500 CE (Regionalization, rise of Bhakti movements, foundation of Sikhism)
Early Modern & Modern: c. 1500 CE onwards (Colonial influence, reform movements, contemporary landscape)

Scholarly periodization varies, but generally includes:

Prehistory: Up to c. 1750 BCE
Vedic Period: c. 1750–500 BCE
Second Urbanisation: c. 600–200 BCE
Classical Period: c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE (subdivided into Pre-Classical, Gupta Golden Age, Late-Classical)
Medieval Period: c. 1200–1500 CE
Early Modern Period: c. 1500–1850 CE
Modern Period: From c. 1850 CE

Continuity and Change

While periodization helps structure historical analysis, it's crucial to recognize the continuous evolution and adaptation of these traditions. Processes like Sanskritization, where local deities and practices were integrated into Brahmanical frameworks, demonstrate the dynamic interplay between different cultural and religious elements throughout India's history.

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References

Adams: "Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also TheravÄda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia".

Buddhism and Hinduism Similarities

Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya declares that Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma.[51]

In post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Årauta means "what is heard"

Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1

K. R. Sundararajan; Bithika Mukerji, eds. Hindu Spirituality: Vedas Through Vedanta. Volume 1. p. 382.

Deussen 1966, p. 51.

Flood 1996, p. 82.

S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972)

Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early VedÄnta Philosophy: Part One. Reprint by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1990, page 139.

The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas

Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.

K. Zvelebil, Dravidian Linguistics: an Introduction, (Pondicherry: Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture 1990), p. 81.

M. R. Sakhare, History and Philosophy of the Lingayat Religion, Prasaranga, Karnataka University, Dharwad

Omvedt, Gail. Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste. 3rd ed. London/New Delhi/Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2003. pp. 2, 3â7, 8, 14â15, 19, 240, 266, 271

Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16

cf. EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"

A full list of references for this article are available at the Indian religions Wikipedia page

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Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice for Learners

This educational resource has been meticulously generated by an AI, drawing exclusively from the provided source material. Its purpose is to facilitate academic understanding and exploration of Indian religions for students at the Master's degree level and beyond.

This content is for informational and educational purposes only and does not constitute religious or philosophical endorsement. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy based on the source, the complexity and diversity of Indian religions mean that this overview is necessarily introductory. Always consult primary texts and scholarly analyses for deeper insights.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any interpretations or actions taken based on the information presented herein. Critical engagement with the material is encouraged.

The Dharmic Foundations

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction ℹ️

🌍 Defining Dharmic Traditions

📊 Global Demographics

📜 Historical Roots

Foundational Origins 🌱

🏺 Prevedic Era

🏙️ Indus Valley Civilisation

📖 Vedic Period

Historical Trajectory 🏛️

⚖️ Shramanic Reformations

🗣️ Dravidian Cultural Synthesis

📜 Epic and Puranic Consolidation

👑 Medieval Developments

Core Philosophies 🧘

🧠 Vedanta and Upanishads

🔄 Samsara and Moksha

⚖️ Astika and Nastika

🚫 Materialism and Atheism

Major Schools & Traditions 🕉️☸️

🕉️ Hinduism

☸️ Buddhism

✨ Jainism

☬ Sikhism

Chronological Frameworks ⏳

🕰️ Historical Divisions

🔄 Continuity and Change

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Introduction

Defining Dharmic Traditions

Global Demographics

Historical Roots

Foundational Origins

Prevedic Era

Indus Valley Civilisation

Vedic Period

Historical Trajectory

Shramanic Reformations

Dravidian Cultural Synthesis

Epic and Puranic Consolidation

Medieval Developments

Core Philosophies

Vedanta and Upanishads

Samsara and Moksha

Astika and Nastika

Materialism and Atheism

Major Schools & Traditions

Hinduism

Buddhism

Jainism

Sikhism

Chronological Frameworks

Historical Divisions

Continuity and Change

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice for Learners