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Individualism Unveiled

A scholarly examination of the philosophy prioritizing the individual's intrinsic worth and independence.

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What is Individualism?

Core Tenet

Individualism is fundamentally a moral stance, a political philosophy, an ideology, and a social outlook that places paramount importance on the intrinsic worth of the individual.[1][2][3][4] It champions the pursuit of one's own goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance above all else. Individualists advocate for the precedence of individual interests over those of the state or any social group, actively opposing external interference from society or institutions.[5] At its heart, individualism centers the individual, asserting that the individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation.[6]

Contrasting Perspectives

Individualism is often defined in contrast to other sociocultural perspectives, such as communitarianism, collectivism, and corporatism.[7][8] It is also closely associated with artistic and bohemian lifestyles, characterized by self-creation and experimentation rather than adherence to tradition or prevailing mass opinions.[5][9] Furthermore, individualism aligns with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.[10][11] The term itself can also denote the quality of being unique or possessing individual characteristics.[5]

Etymology

Origins of the Term

The term "individualism" was initially introduced into the English language as a pejorative term by utopian socialists, such as the Owenites, in the late 1830s. However, its usage evolved. James Elishama Smith, a Christian Israelite and early follower of Robert Owen, later adopted a positive view of individualism, arguing that it allowed for the development of "original genius" and the accumulation of property essential for happiness, thereby rejecting Owen's collective property ideas.[12] William Maccall, influenced by thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Thomas Carlyle, also articulated a positive view of individualism in his 1847 work, Elements of Individualism.[13]

The Individual

Defining the Individual

An individual is defined as a single person or distinct entity within a larger collection. Historically, particularly in the 15th century and within fields like statistics and metaphysics, "individual" meant "indivisible," referring to any singular item. By the 17th century, the term began to signify separateness, leading to the concept of individualism.[14] Individuality itself is the state or quality of being a distinct person, characterized by unique needs, goals, and desires separate from others.[15]

Individuation Principle

The principle of individuation, or principium individuationis, describes the process by which a thing is distinguished from others.[16][17] For Carl Jung, individuation is a crucial developmental process involving the integration of the conscious and unconscious aspects of the psyche, leading to a whole and unique personality.[18][19] Gilbert Simondon proposed a theory where the individual is an outcome of an ongoing ontological process of individuation, which is inherently incomplete.[20] Bernard Stiegler further developed these ideas, emphasizing the interconnectedness of the individual ("I") with the collective ("we"), where identity is formed through adopting and acknowledging shared traditions.[21]

Individualism and Society

Societal Dynamics

Individualism posits that individuals within society discover their interests independently, rather than automatically conforming to group interests. This perspective allows for the amalgamation of various philosophies based on personal utility. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, while discussing the "general will," suggested that true freedom lies not in the simple collection of individual wills but in adherence to rational principles that benefit the individual, contrasting this with submission to passions.[21]

Cross-cultural research often contrasts individualism with collectivism. Studies indicate that cultures vary significantly in their emphasis on individual autonomy versus group conformity. Highly individualistic cultures, often found in economically developed regions like North America and Western Europe, tend to correlate with higher GDP per capita and venture capital investments.[24][25] Conversely, more collectivistic cultures are typically found in developing regions. While modernization is often linked to increased individualization, critics note that this relationship is complex and not always linear.[32][33] Ruth Benedict's distinction between "guilt societies" (internal standards) and "shame societies" (external standards) provides another lens for understanding these cultural differences.[34]

Individualism and Charity

Contrary to some critiques, research suggests that individualistic societies may exhibit higher levels of charitable giving. This is attributed to both self-interested giving and the reinforcement of economic freedom, aligning with classical liberal arguments from thinkers like Adam Smith and David Hume.[37]

Political Individualism

Protecting Autonomy

Political individualism centers on safeguarding individual autonomy against the impositions of social institutions, particularly the state and established moral codes. Civil libertarianism, for instance, champions civil liberties and personal freedoms, prioritizing them over external authority, whether from the state, corporations, or social norms.[40] This outlook is compatible with various political philosophies across the left-right spectrum.[41] Some interpretations of individualism, distinct from Lockean traditions, can even encompass socialist ideals.[42]

Historical Context

In Britain during the 1970s, a growing emphasis on individual rights, identities, and autonomy contributed to the rise of Thatcherism, reflecting a societal shift towards greater personal self-determination.[43]

Economic Individualism

Principles of Economic Autonomy

Economic individualism asserts that individuals should possess autonomy in their economic decision-making, free from control by communities, corporations, or the state. This principle is central to classical liberalism, which emerged in the 19th century, emphasizing personal freedom alongside free markets and classical economics.[126] Key figures like Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo were influential proponents. The revival of classical liberalism in the 20th century by thinkers such as Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek further solidified these ideas.[127]

Libertarianism and Liberalism

Libertarianism, deeply rooted in individualism, advocates for maximizing individual liberty and autonomy. It emphasizes voluntary association and minimal state intervention. Classical liberalism shares this commitment, viewing individual freedom as paramount.[40][75][76]

Philosophical Currents

Egoist Anarchism

Egoist anarchism, stemming from the philosophy of Max Stirner, emphasizes the individual's will and self-interest above all external determinants like society or morality. Stirner argued that the only limit to an individual's rights is their own power, advocating for "unions of egoists" as an alternative to the state.[53][54][55][57][58]

Existentialism

Existentialism focuses on the individual's subjective experience, emphasizing personal freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in a seemingly absurd world. Philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard highlighted the individual's duty to create their own meaning, despite facing existential challenges.[90][91][94] Post-World War II existentialism gained prominence as a means to reassert human individuality and freedom.[103]

Freethought & Humanism

Freethought advocates for forming opinions based on reason and evidence, independent of authority or dogma. Humanism similarly emphasizes human dignity, capabilities, and rationality, often contrasting with supernatural beliefs and appeals to authority.[105][106] Both perspectives underscore the importance of individual critical thinking and autonomy.

Hedonism & Libertinism

Hedonism posits that pleasure is the ultimate intrinsic good, while libertinism involves a rejection of conventional moral restraints, valuing sensory experiences and personal freedom.[110][111] These philosophies often align with individualistic pursuits of personal satisfaction and liberation.

Objectivism & Philosophical Anarchism

Objectivism, founded by Ayn Rand, champions rational self-interest and individual rights, advocating for pure laissez-faire capitalism. Philosophical anarchism contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy and advocates for its peaceful dissolution, often emphasizing individual autonomy.[116][119][120]

Subjectivism

Subjectivism places primacy on subjective experience as the foundation for measure and law. Ethical subjectivism, a form of moral relativism, posits that moral standards are relative to individual cultures or persons.[125][85]

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References

References

  1.  Jung, C. G. (1962). Symbols of Transformation: An analysis of the prelude to a case of schizophrenia (Vol. 2, R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). New York: Harper & Brothers.
  2.  Gilbert Simondon. L'individuation psychique et collective (Paris, Aubier, 1989; reprinted in 2007 with a preface by Bernard Stiegler)
  3.  Kagitcibasi, C. (2005). Modernization does not mean westernization: Emergence of a different pattern. In W. Friedlmeier, P. Chakkarath, and B. Schwarz (Eds.), Culture and human development (pp. 255-272). Psychology Press.
  4.  Benedict, Ruth; "The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture." Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Co. 1954 orig. 1946.
  5.  Emily Robinson, et al. "Telling stories about post-war Britain: popular individualism and the 'crisis' of the 1970s." Twentieth Century British History 28.2 (2017): 268–304.
  6.  Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.
  7.  Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  8.  Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119.
  9.  Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.
  10.  Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.
  11.  Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29) What do anarchists want from us?, Slate.com
  12.  George Woodcock. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. 1962. (p. 447)
  13.  "Autarchy vs Anarchy" by Robert LeFevre. Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought Vol. 1, No. 4 (Winter, 1965): 30–49
  14.  The Ancient Chinese Super State of Primary Societies: Taoist Philosophy for the 21st Century, You-Sheng Li, June 2010, p. 300
  15.  Sanders, Steven M. Is egoism morally defensible? Philosophia. Springer Netherlands. Volume 18, Numbers 2–3 / July 1988
  16.  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkegaard/
  17.  Livingston, James et al. Modern Christian Thought: The Twentieth Century (Fortress Press, 2006, Chapter 5: Christian Existentialism).
  18.  Martin, Clancy. Religious Existentialism in Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism (Blackwell, 2006, pp. 188–205)
  19.  Guignon, Charles B. and Derk Pereboom. Existentialism: basic writings (Hackett Publishing, 2001, p. xiii)
  20.  Hastings, James. Encyclopedia of Religion
  21.  Wayne Gabardi, review of Anarchism by David Miller, published in American Political Science Review Vol. 80, No. 1. (Mar., 1986), pp. 300–302.
  22.  Outhwaite, William & Tourain, Alain (Eds.). (2003). Anarchism. The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought (2nd Edition, p. 12). Blackwell Publishing
  23.  Tucker, Benjamin R., Instead of a Book, by a Man too Busy to Write One: A Fragmentary Exposition of Philosophical Anarchism (1897, New York)
  24.  Broderick, John C. "Thoreau's Proposals for Legislation". American Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Autumn, 1955). p. 285
  25.  Byas, Jason Lee (25 November 2015). "The Moral Irrelevance of Rent". Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
  26.  Carson, Kevin (8 November 2015). "Are We All Mutualists?" Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
  27.  Gillis, William (29 November 2015). "The Organic Emergence of Property from Reputation". Center for a Stateless Society. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
  28.  Long, Roderick T. (2012). "The Rise of Social Anarchism". In Gaus, Gerald F.; D'Agostino, Fred, eds. The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. p. 223.
  29.  Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilbur R. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America: An Encyclopedia. Sage Publications. pp. 1006–1007.
  30.  Olsaretti, Serena (2004). Liberty, Desert and the Market: A Philosophical Study. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14, 88, 100.
  31.  Hicks, Steven V. and Daniel E. Shannon. The American journal of economics and sociology. Blackwell Pub, 2003. p. 612
  32.  "...preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local, voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations-sometimes as a complement to and check on state power..."
  33.  An Anarchist FAQ. "(Benjamin) Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism."
  34.  Bookchin, Murray (1992). "The Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism".
  35.  Bromley, Kent (1906). "Preface". In Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread. London and New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
  36.  Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11
  37.  Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 15.
  38.  Sharma, R.N. (1991). Plato: An Inter-disciplinary Perspective. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. pp. 131–132.
  39.  "Hegel" by Charles Taylor, Part II: Phenomenology: IV The Dialectic of Consciousness, V Self-Consciousness
  40.  Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret Jacob, James R. Jacob. Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600, Volume 2. 9th ed. Boston, Massaschussetts: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2009 pp. 760
  41.  "Catechism of the Catholic Church 2792".
A full list of references for this article are available at the Individualism Wikipedia page

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