How did the Indo-Greek Kingdom originate?

The kingdom was established around 200 BC when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius I of Bactria launched an invasion of India from Bactria. This event marked the beginning of Greek rule in the northwestern Indian subcontinent.

What characterized the cultural fusion within the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

Over the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings blended Greek and Indian cultures. This fusion was evident in their coinage, which combined Greek and Indian languages and symbols, and in the archaeological remains that showcased a mix of Greek and Indian artistic and architectural styles.

Who was Menander I, and what was his significance in the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

Menander I is considered the most successful and well-known of the Indo-Greek kings. He expanded the kingdom to its greatest territorial extent and established his capital at Sagala in the Punjab. His reign is significant for its military achievements and his later conversion to Buddhism, as detailed in the Milinda Panha.

What happened to the Indo-Greek Kingdom after Menander I's death?

Following Menander I's death around 130 BC, his empire fragmented, leading to a considerable reduction in Indo-Greek influence. Several new kingdoms and republics, such as the Yaudheya Republic and the Arjunayanas, emerged in the territories east of the Ravi River.

What led to the eventual decline and disappearance of the Indo-Greek Kingdom as a political entity?

The Indo-Greek Kingdom gradually lost its territories due to invasions, primarily from the Indo-Scythians, who were themselves pushed by the Yuezhi migrating from Central Asia. The kingdom ceased to exist as a distinct political entity around 10 AD.

What were the initial Greek presences in the Indian subcontinent before the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

Greeks first established authority in the northwestern Indian subcontinent during the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Later, Alexander the Great conquered the region in 326 BC, establishing satrapies and cities, and leaving Greek troops under generals like Eudemus and Peithon.

How did the Mauryan Empire interact with the Greeks?

Greeks, referred to as Yavanas, participated in Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power. A peace treaty between Chandragupta and Seleucus I Nicator included an "intermarriage agreement" (Epigamia), suggesting close ties. Greek ambassadors like Megasthenes resided at the Mauryan court, and Ashoka later sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers.

What evidence suggests a potential Greek lineage for Emperor Ashoka?

Some scholars suggest that Ashoka might have been of Greek descent, possibly half or a quarter Greek. This theory stems from the marriage alliance between the Mauryan and Seleucid dynasties, where a Seleucid princess may have married Chandragupta Maurya or his son Bindusara.

What role did Greeks play in the spread of Buddhism in ancient India?

According to Pali sources and Ashoka's edicts, Greek populations within the Mauryan Empire converted to Buddhism. Greek monks, such as Dharmaraksita and Mahadharmaraksita, are described as actively involved in Buddhist proselytism, and Ashoka sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek lands.

What was the significance of the Heliodorus pillar?

The Heliodorus pillar, erected around 113 BC in Vidisha by the Indo-Greek ambassador Heliodorus, is significant as the first known inscription related to the Bhagavata tradition in India. It indicates the ambassador's devotion to Vasudeva and suggests interactions and conversions between Indo-Greeks and Indian religions.

How did the art of the Indo-Greeks influence later artistic traditions?

The Indo-Greek Kingdom is credited with contributing to the development of Greco-Buddhist art. Their artistic proficiency, evident in their coinage and sculptural remains, influenced subsequent art forms in Gandhara, blending Hellenistic styles with Indian themes and iconography.

What is known about the coinage of the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

The Indo-Greek coinage is renowned for its artistic quality and innovation. They issued the first bilingual coins, featuring both Greek and Indian scripts (Brahmi and Kharoshthi), and incorporated depictions of both Greek and Indian deities, as well as symbols like the Dharmachakra and the elephant.

What evidence suggests early contact between the Indo-Greeks and China?

The discovery of cupro-nickel coins by Indo-Greek kings like Euthydemus II, Pantaleon, and Agathocles suggests possible trade in metals with China, as this alloy technology was primarily known in China at the time. Additionally, the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian reported finding Chinese goods in Bactrian markets that had passed through northwestern India.

What role did the Indo-Greeks play in the development of the Silk Road?

The Indo-Greeks' presence and trade activities in Central Asia, particularly their interactions with Chinese explorers like Zhang Qian, contributed to the establishment and development of the Silk Road trade routes starting from the late 2nd century BC.

What military technologies or practices were characteristic of the Indo-Greeks?

Indo-Greek armies utilized spears, swords, longbows, and arrows. Notably, the recurve bow and gorytos (bow case) of Central Asian nomads began appearing on their coins around 130 BC, indicating interaction and possibly the use of nomadic mercenaries. Kings were often depicted on horseback.

How did the Indo-Greeks interact with Indian religions beyond Buddhism?

Besides Buddhism, the Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths like Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. The Heliodorus pillar inscription shows a Greek ambassador converting to Vaishnavism, and their coinage sometimes featured Hindu deities like Vishnu and Shiva.

What does the term 'Yavana' refer to in the context of the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

The term 'Yavana' is believed to be derived from 'Ionians' and was used in Indian sources to refer to Hellenistic Greeks. Initially, it specifically denoted Greeks, but over time, especially after the 1st century AD, it sometimes referred to other foreigners as well.

What is the significance of the 'Dharmikasa' title found on some Indo-Greek coins?

The title 'Dharmikasa' (Follower of the Dharma), found in Kharoshthi script on coins of several Indo-Greek kings after Menander I, likely resonated with Indian subjects familiar with Ashoka's promotion of Dharma. It suggests a degree of cultural assimilation and patronage of local religious values.

What evidence suggests that some Indo-Greek rulers may have been of mixed ethnicity?

While early rulers like Euthydemus I and Demetrius I were of Greek descent, the ethnicity of later rulers is less clear. For instance, Artemidoros (c. 80 BC) was initially thought to be of Indo-Scythian descent, though he is now considered a regular Indo-Greek king, indicating potential ethnic mixing over time.

How did the Indo-Greeks influence the development of early Buddhist art?

The Indo-Greeks are considered influential in the origins of Greco-Buddhist art. Works from regions like Hadda in Afghanistan, featuring Buddha figures flanked by Hellenistic representations of deities like Herakles (Vajrapani) and Tyche (Hariti), suggest a direct connection between Indo-Greek artistic traditions and early Buddhist sculpture.

What evidence points to Indo-Greek trade across the Indian Ocean?

Maritime trade between the Indo-Greeks and the Roman world across the Indian Ocean developed significantly. The construction of Red Sea ports by the Ptolemies facilitated voyages to the Indus delta and western India, with sources indicating up to 120 ships sailing annually by the end of the Indo-Greek period.

What do the "blessing gestures" on some Indo-Greek coins signify?

Starting around 100 BC, coins of kings like Agathokleia, Strato I, and Philoxenus depict figures making gestures similar to the Buddhist Vitarka mudra. This practice, also adopted by the Indo-Scythians, suggests a cultural or religious interaction, possibly indicating Buddhist influence on royal iconography.

What was the nature of the interaction between the Indo-Greeks and the Shunga Empire?

Relations between the Indo-Greeks and the Shungas appear to have improved over time, as evidenced by the embassy of Heliodorus from Indo-Greek king Antialkidas to the Shunga court around 115 BC. This interaction also suggests Indo-Greeks readily adopted Indian religions, as Heliodorus erected a pillar dedicated to Vasudeva.

What historical accounts suggest Indo-Greek military campaigns into the Gangetic Plains?

The Yuga Purana, an Indian text, describes a prophecy of Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) attacking Pataliputra, the Shunga capital. While the historicity is debated, the Hathigumpha inscription mentions King Kharavela routing a demoralized Yavana army back to Mathura, possibly led by Menander I or a later ruler.

How did the Indo-Greeks contribute to the development of the Kharoshthi script?

The Indo-Greeks utilized the Kharoshthi script on the reverse of their bilingual coins, often in conjunction with Greek inscriptions and mintmarks. This practice, particularly from the reign of Apollodotus II onwards, was crucial for the eventual decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by scholars like James Prinsep.

What evidence suggests Greek influence on early Chinese art during the Han Dynasty?

Designs on early Han dynasty bronze mirrors, featuring elements like rosette flowers and geometric lines, show potential Hellenistic influences. Furthermore, statuettes of Greek soldiers found north of the Tian Shan mountains, now in the Xinjiang museum, indicate direct or indirect contact.

What was the significance of the elephant symbol on the coins of Demetrius I?

The elephant symbol, particularly the elephant scalp helmet worn by Demetrius I on his coins, is interpreted as a token of his Indian conquests, signifying his military success in the subcontinent.

What role did the Yuezhi and Scythians play in the decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

From the mid-2nd century BC, nomadic peoples like the Scythians, pushed by the Yuezhi migration from Central Asia, began invading Bactria. Around 130 BC, these invasions likely contributed to the fall of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and the subsequent pressure on the Indo-Greek territories.

How did the Indo-Greeks interact with the Yuezhi and Scythians after the fall of Bactria?

Following the fall of Bactria around 130 BC, the Indo-Greeks likely engaged in peaceful interactions or alliances with the invading Yuezhi or Scythian tribes. This is suggested by the combination of Hellenistic and Scythian elements on coins of later Indo-Greek kings like Zoilos I, and the possible alliance between Artemidoros and the Scythian king Maues.

What is the significance of the "Yavana era" mentioned in inscriptions?

The "Yavana era," believed to have originated around 186/5 BC, is referenced in inscriptions, such as the Yavanarajya inscription found in Mathura. This era likely marks a period of significant Greek influence or rule in regions like Mathura, extending potentially to around 70-60 BC.

What evidence suggests that some Indo-Greek rulers might have been of partially nomadic origin?

The coins of King Hermaeus (c. 90-70 BC), who ruled in the Paropamisadae, depict him riding a horse equipped with the recurve bow and bow-case characteristic of steppe nomads. This, along with the possibility of his partial nomad origin, suggests interactions or integration with these groups.

How did the Indo-Greek economy appear to function?

The economy of the Indo-Greek Kingdom is not extensively documented, but the abundance of their coins suggests a vibrant monetary system, likely supported by significant mining operations, particularly in the Hindu Kush region.

What was the significance of the "Saviour king" title on Indo-Greek coins?

The title "Soter" (Saviour king), appearing in Greek on the obverse and Pali ('Tratarasa') on the reverse of coins, notably those of Menander I and Apollodotus I, indicated a significant victory or a role in protecting populations. This title held high value in the Greek world and likely resonated with both Greek and Indian subjects, possibly referring to protection from Shunga persecution or other threats.

How did the Indo-Greek kingdoms interact with the Satavahana dynasty?

The Indo-Greek monetary conventions influenced the coinage of the Satavahana dynasty in the south, suggesting extensive use of Indo-Greek coins for cross-border trade. However, the Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni later defeated a confederacy including Yavanas (Indo-Greeks), Shakas, and Pahlavas around 130 AD.

What evidence suggests Greek influence on the art found in the Terracotta Army?

Excavations of the Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang (3rd century BCE) have revealed artworks that suggest Greek influence. It is proposed that Greek artists may have traveled to China during this period to train local artisans in sculpting techniques.

What role did the Indo-Greeks play in the development of Mahayana Buddhism?

It is suggested that the Indo-Greeks may have influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhism. This theory posits that Mahayana Buddhism emerged from Greco-Buddhist communities through a blending of Greek philosophical traditions (like Democritean, Sophistic, and Pyrrhonist) with existing Buddhist elements.

What is the significance of the "Bharhut Yavana" depiction?

The "Bharhut Yavana" is a high relief on the Bharhut stupa railings (c. 100 BC) depicting a warrior with Greek features, attire, and a Buddhist Triratana symbol on his sword. This figure, possibly representing Menander I, signifies the integration of Greek and Buddhist cultural elements.

How did the Indo-Greeks contribute to the development of Indian numismatics?

The Indo-Greek monetary system, particularly their bilingual coins and the adoption of Kharoshthi script, significantly influenced the numismatic traditions of neighboring kingdoms and continued to be felt even during the Gupta Empire in the 4th century AD.

What is the significance of the "Yavana" inscriptions found in Buddhist caves?

Inscriptions in Buddhist caves, such as those at Karla, Shivneri, and Pandavleni, mention "Yavana" donors, often associated with Greek or Indo-Greek individuals. These inscriptions, dating from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, indicate the continued presence and integration of Greek communities into Indian society and religious practices, particularly Buddhism.

What does the term "Yavana" signify in ancient Indian literature regarding the Indo-Greeks?

The term "Yavana" is thought to be derived from "Ionians" and was used in Sanskrit and Pali texts to refer to Hellenistic Greeks. Initially precise, it later evolved to sometimes denote any foreigner, but its early usage clearly points to the Greeks who established the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

What evidence suggests that the Indo-Greeks may have had a hybrid ethnic composition?

While early rulers like Euthydemus I and Demetrius I were Greek, the ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear. For example, Artemidoros might have had Indo-Scythian ancestry, suggesting a degree of ethnic blending over the kingdom's history.

What was the role of the Seleucid Empire in the context of the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

The Seleucid Empire, founded by Seleucus I Nicator, initially controlled the territories that later became the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Demetrius I of Bactria, who invaded India, was the son of Euthydemus I, who had successfully resisted an invasion by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III.

How did the Indo-Greeks interact with Zoroastrianism?

The Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths, including Zoroastrianism. The presence of figures resembling the Zoroastrian divinity Mithra, depicted with a Phrygian cap, on coins of kings like Hermaeus and Antialcidas suggests a degree of religious syncretism or influence.

What is the significance of the "Yavanarajya inscription" discovered in Mathura?

The Yavanarajya inscription, found in Mathura, mentions its carving on "The last day of year 116 of Yavana hegemony (Yavanarajya)". This suggests that the Greeks, or Yavanas, ruled over Mathura as late as approximately 70-60 BC, indicating the eastern extent of their influence.

What evidence suggests that the Indo-Greeks may have influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhism?

The development of Mahayana Buddhism has been linked to Greco-Buddhist communities, potentially influenced by Greek philosophical traditions like Democritean, Sophistic, and Pyrrhonist thought, which may have blended with existing Buddhist elements.

What was the likely nature of the relationship between the Indo-Greeks and the Shunga Empire after Menander I?

After Menander I's death, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground to Indian powers in the east. While specific interactions are debated, the Shunga Empire, which had overthrown the Mauryas, was a significant power in the region during the Indo-Greek period.

What does the term "Yavana" imply about the origins of the Indo-Greeks?

The term "Yavana" is believed to be derived from "Ionians," suggesting that the Indo-Greeks were perceived by Indian sources as originating from the Ionian Greeks, who were among the first Greek peoples encountered in the East.

How did the Indo-Greeks manage their diverse territories and populations?

The Indo-Greek Kingdom was characterized by a blend of cultures, with kings combining Greek and Indian languages and symbols on their coins. They ruled from various regional capitals and likely managed diverse populations through a combination of Greek administrative structures and adaptation to local customs.

What is the significance of the "Greco-Bactrian" kingdom in relation to the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, founded by Diodotus I around 250 BC, was the precursor state from which the Indo-Greek Kingdom emerged. Demetrius I of Bactria, son of Euthydemus I, launched the invasion of India that led to the establishment of the Indo-Greek realm.

What evidence suggests that Greek populations persisted in northwestern India for centuries after the political decline of the Indo-Greek Kingdom?

While the Indo-Greek political entity dissolved around 10 AD due to invasions, Greek populations likely remained for several centuries. This is suggested by the continued use of Greek language and calendrical methods, influences on later coinage, and the presence of Greek communities in cities like Alexandria Arachosia, described as Greek even in the 1st century AD.

Echoes of Hellenism

A journey through the fusion of Greek and Indian cultures in ancient South Asia.

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The Indo-Greek Kingdom

Geographic Scope

The Indo-Greek Kingdom, also known as the Yavana Kingdom, was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom that covered parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India. It emerged from the eastward expansion of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

Duration

Existing from approximately 200 BC to 10 AD, this kingdom represented a significant period of cultural and political interaction between the Hellenistic world and the Indian subcontinent.

Cultural Synthesis

Indo-Greek rulers skillfully blended Greek and Indian languages, symbols, and ideas, most notably seen on their bilingual coinage. This synthesis profoundly influenced the region's art, religion, and philosophy, particularly through the development of Greco-Buddhism.

Historical Trajectory

Origins and Expansion

Founded by Demetrius I of Bactria around 200 BC following his invasion of India, the kingdom initially extended deep into the subcontinent. The term "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes various Hellenistic states ruling from capitals like Taxila, Sagala, and Pushkalavati.

Notable Rulers

Key figures include Demetrius I, the founder, and Menander I, renowned for his military campaigns and patronage of Buddhism. Menander's reign marked the kingdom's zenith, with his coins found widely across the region.

The Indo-Greek period saw numerous rulers, often marked by internal conflicts and shifting territories. Notable figures include:

Demetrius I (c. 200–180 BC): Founder, known for elephant scalp imagery symbolizing Indian conquests.
Apollodotus I (c. 180–160 BC): First ruler primarily based in India, expanding influence in Gandhara and Punjab.
Menander I (c. 155–130 BC): Considered the greatest Indo-Greek king, expanded the realm significantly and is famously associated with Buddhism.
Hermaeus (c. 90–70 BC): One of the last significant rulers in the western territories before Yuezhi/Saka invasions.
Strato II & III (c. 25 BC–10 AD): Among the last Indo-Greek rulers, holding territory in Eastern Punjab until conquered by the Saka ruler Rajuvula.

Interactions and Decline

The kingdom faced pressure from the Yuezhi and Saka peoples migrating from Central Asia. Internal divisions and external invasions led to a gradual decline, with the last rulers disappearing around 10 AD, though Greek populations persisted longer.

Cultural Fusion

Language and Script

Greek was the official language, evident on the obverse of coins, while Prakrit languages in Kharosthi script appeared on the reverse, showcasing bilingual administration. This linguistic blend facilitated cultural exchange.

Architectural Influence

Hellenistic architectural elements, such as Corinthian capitals, were integrated into local structures, notably seen in sites like Ai-Khanoum and the Buddhist stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut, indicating a significant artistic dialogue.

Artistic Expressions

Indo-Greek art is renowned for its coinage, featuring realistic portraits of rulers and deities from both Greek and Indian pantheons. Sculptural evidence, though sparser, suggests a continuation of Hellenistic artistic traditions, influencing the development of Greco-Buddhist art.

Spiritual Landscape

Greco-Buddhism

The interaction with Buddhism was particularly profound. King Menander I's conversion and patronage, as documented in the Milinda Panha, highlight the syncretic nature of Greco-Buddhism. Buddhist symbols like the Dharmachakra appeared on coins, and Greek rulers were sometimes referred to as "Followers of the Dharma."

Greco-Buddhism

The Heliodorus pillar inscription, dedicated to Vasudeva by a Greek ambassador, signifies the adoption of Vaishnavism by some Indo-Greeks, demonstrating the integration into local Hindu traditions.

Syncretic Beliefs

Beyond Buddhism and Hinduism, evidence suggests exposure to Zoroastrianism, particularly through the depiction of deities like Mithra on coins. This religious pluralism reflects the cosmopolitan nature of the kingdom.

Artistic Legacy

Masterful Coinage

Indo-Greek coinage is celebrated for its artistic brilliance, featuring realistic portraits and bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Kharosthi. The evolution of coin types provides crucial insights into the kingdom's chronology and cultural interactions.

Sculptural Influence

While direct Indo-Greek sculptures are rare, Hellenistic artistic traditions influenced the development of Greco-Buddhist art in Gandhara. Figures in Greek attire and motifs like the "blessing gesture" appear in reliefs, suggesting the presence of Greek artisans.

Coinage: Introduced bilingual inscriptions (Greek/Kharosthi), Attic and Indian standards, and depicted deities like Zeus, Herakles, Athena, Vishnu, Shiva, and the Buddha.
Sculpture: Early Gandharan works, like those found at Ai-Khanoum and the Buner reliefs, show strong Hellenistic realism in figures, clothing, and motifs (e.g., amphoras, cauldrons).
Motifs: Features include Greek soldiers, foreigners in Hellenistic attire, mythical creatures like griffins, and floral designs, often found on stupa railings and reliefs.

Material Culture

Finds like stone palettes and terracotta figurines suggest the presence of Greek artisans and influences in centers like Mathura. The use of cupro-nickel alloy in coinage points to technological exchange, possibly with China.

Economic Vitality

Monetary System

The Indo-Greeks established a sophisticated monetary system, issuing abundant coins in both Greek and Indian standards. This suggests extensive mining operations and a vibrant monetary economy that influenced neighboring kingdoms.

Trade Networks

Maritime trade routes across the Indian Ocean flourished during this period, connecting the kingdom with the Greco-Roman world via Red Sea ports. Trade also extended eastward, with evidence of exchanges with China, possibly facilitated by the Silk Road.

Inter-regional Commerce

Indo-Greek coinage was widely circulated and adopted by successor states like the Kunindas and Satavahanas, indicating significant cross-border trade. Some Attic standard coins found in northern Afghanistan may have served as tribute payments to nomadic tribes.

Military Prowess

Hellenistic Warfare

The armies employed typical Hellenistic tactics and equipment, including cavalry, infantry, spears, swords, and bows. Coins depict rulers often mounted on horseback, reflecting the importance of cavalry.

Steppe Influences

The introduction of the recurve bow and quiver on coins around 130 BC suggests interaction with nomadic peoples like the Yuezhi or Scythians, possibly indicating the use of mercenaries or alliances.

Elephant Corps

While not explicitly depicted on coins, war elephants were likely part of the military, as suggested by Demetrius I's elephant scalp helmet and historical accounts mentioning their use in earlier conflicts involving Greeks in the region.

Enduring Impact

Cultural Diffusion

The Indo-Greek Kingdom played a crucial role in transmitting Hellenistic culture, art, and political ideas into the Indian subcontinent, fostering a unique Greco-Indian synthesis.

Religious Syncretism

Their interaction with Buddhism, Hinduism, and possibly Zoroastrianism significantly influenced the religious landscape, contributing to the development of Greco-Buddhism and the patronage of various faiths.

Numismatic Heritage

The sophisticated and artistically refined coinage of the Indo-Greeks remains a primary source for understanding their history, rulers, and cultural interactions, influencing coinage practices for centuries.

Chronological Overview

Key Periods and Rulers

The following table outlines the approximate timeline and key rulers, based on numismatic and historical evidence. Dates are approximate and subject to scholarly debate.

Territories/Dates	West Bactria	East Bactria	Paropamisade	Arachosia	Gandhara	Western Punjab	Eastern Punjab	Mathura
326–325 BCE	Campaigns of Alexander the Great in India
312 BCE	Creation of the Seleucid Empire
280 BCE	Foundation of Ai-Khanoum
255–239 BCE	Independence of Greco-Bactrian Kingdom by Diodotus I
239–223 BCE	Diodotus II
230–200 BCE	Euthydemus I
200–190 BCE	Demetrius I
190–185 BCE	Euthydemus II
190–180 BCE	Agathocles			Pantaleon
185–170 BCE	Antimachus I
180–160 BCE			Apollodotus I
175–170 BCE	Demetrius II
160–155 BCE			Antimachus II
170–145 BCE	Eucratides I
155–130 BCE	Yuezhi occupation, loss of Ai-Khanoum	Eucratides II, Plato, Heliocles I	Menander I
130–120 BCE	Yuezhi occupation		Zoilos I		Agathoclea			Yavanarajya inscription
120–110 BCE			Lysias		Strato I
110–100 BCE			Antialcidas		Heliocles II
100 BCE			Polyxenus		Demetrius III
100–95 BCE			Philoxenus
95–90 BCE			Diomedes	Amyntas		Epander
90 BCE			Theophilus	Peucolaus		Thraso
90–85 BCE			Nicias	Menander II		Artemidorus
90–70 BCE			Hermaeus	Archebius
	Yuezhi occupation		Maues (Indo-Scythian)
75–70 BCE				Telephos		Apollodotus II
65–55 BCE							Hippostratos	Dionysios
55–35 BCE							Zoilos II
35–25 BCE							Apollophanes
25 BCE–10 CE							Strato II & Strato III
							Zoilos III / Bhadayasa
							Rajuvula (Indo-Scythian)

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References

Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1966), "Alexandria of the Caucasus and Kapisa", The Greeks in Bactria and India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 460â462, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511707353.019, ISBN 9781108009416

Ghose, Sanujit (2011). "Cultural links between India and the Greco-Roman world". Ancient History Encyclopedia

11.34

Osmund Bopearachchi Was Indo-Greek Artemidoros the son of Indo-Sctythian Maues

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, pp. 26-27 [1]

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p. 27 [2]

History Of The Chamar Dynasty, Raj Kumar, Gyan Publishing House, 2008, p. 51 [3]

Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992, p. 83 [4]

"A minor rock edict, recently discovered at Kandahar, was inscribed in two scripts, Greek and Aramaic", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p. 112

"The second Kandahar edict (the purely Greek one) of Ashoka is a part of the "corpus" known as the "Fourteen-Rock-Edicts"" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 452

"It is also in Kandahar that were found the fragments of a Greek translation of Edicts XII and XIII, as well as the Aramean translation of another edict of Ashoka", Bussagli, p. 89

"In Rock Edict Two Ashoka even claims to have established hospitals for men and beasts in the Hellenistic kingdoms", McEvilley, p. 368

"One of the most famous of these emissaries, Dharmaraksita, who was said to have converted thousands, was a Greek (Mhv.XII.5 and 34)", McEvilley, p. 370

Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII

"The finest of the pillars were executed by Greek or Perso-Greek sculptors; others by local craftsmen, with or without foreign supervision" Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara", p4

"A number of foreign artisans, such as the Persians or even the Greeks, worked alongside the local craftsmen, and some of their skills were copied with avidity" Burjor Avari, "India, The ancient past", p. 118

Foreign Influence on Ancient India by Krishna Chandra Sagar p. 138

The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology by Upinder Singh p. 18

"Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus I after the aborted siege of Bactra, renewed with Sophagasenus the alliance concluded by his ancestor Seleucos I", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p. 52

J. D. Lerner, The Impact of Seleucid Decline on the Eastern Iranian Plateau: the Foundations of Arsacid Parthia and Graeco-Bactria, (Stuttgart 1999)

Strabo XI.XI.I

Polybius 11.34

Strabo 11.11.2

Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius

Polybius 11.34 Siege of Bactra

C.Michael Hogan, Silk Road, North China, Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham

Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV

Pushyamitra is described as a "senapati" (Commander-in-chief) of Brihadratha in the Puranas

Pratisarga Parva p. 18

Strabo, Geographia 11.11.1 p. 516 Casaubon. 15.1.2, p. 686 Casaubon, "tribes" is Jones' version of ethne (Loeb)

For a list of classical testimonia, see Tarn's Index II; but this covers India, Bactria, and several sources for the Hellenistic East as a whole.

A Journey Through India's Past Chandra Mauli Mani, Northern Book Centre, 2005, p. 39

"It would be impossible to explain otherwise why in all his portraits Demetrios is crowned with an elephant scalp", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p. 53

"It now seems most likely that Demetrios was the founder of the newly discovered Greek Era of 186/5", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins IV

"The only thing that seems reasonably sure is that Taxila was part of the domain of Agathocles", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p. 59

Iconography of BalarÄma, Nilakanth Purushottam Joshi, Abhinav Publications, 1979, p. 22 [5]

The coins of the Greek and Scythic kings of Bactria and India in the British Museum, p.50 and Pl. XII-7 [6]

"Plutarch, who talks of the burial of Menander's relics under monuments or stupas, had obviously read or heard some Buddhist account of the Greek king's death", McEvilley, p. 377.

Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested their' title of' heroes among all Kshatriyas. ââJunagadh rock inscription

"By about 130 BC nomadic people from the Jaxartes region had overrun the northern boundary of Bactria itself", McEvilley, p. 372.

"When Strabo mentions that "Those who after Alexander advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Polibothra (Pataliputra)" this can only refer to the conquests of Menander.", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history, p. XIV

Full text, Schoff's 1912 translation

History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, pp. 8â10 [7]

"Coin-moulds of the Indo-Greeks have also been recovered from Ghuram and Naurangabad." Punjab History Conference, Punjabi University, 1990, Proceedings, Volume 23, p. 45

History and Historians in Ancient India, Dilip Kumar Ganguly, Abhinav Publications, 1984 p. 108

Encyclopaedia of Tourism Resources in India, Volume 1, Manohar Sajnani, Gyan Publishing House, 2001 p. 93

The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, James C. Harle, Yale University Press, 1994 p. 67

Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999, p. 169

History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p. 170

"Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution", Bopearachchi, p16.

"..further weight to the likelihood that this account of a Yavana incursion to Saketa and Pataliputra-in alliance with the Pancalas and the Mathurasâis indeed historical" Mitchiner, The Yuga Purana, p. 65.

"The advance of the Greek to Pataliputra is recorded from the Indian side in the Yuga-purana", Tarn, p. 145

"The name Dimita is almost certainly an adaptation of "Demetrios", and the inscription thus indicates a Yavana presence in Magadha, probably around the middle of the 1st century BC." Mitchiner, The Yuga Purana, p. 65.

"The Hathigumpha inscription seems to have nothing to do with the history of the Indo-Greeks; certainly it has nothing to do with Demetrius I", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p. 50.

Translation in Epigraphia Indica 1920 p. 87

"Numismats and historians all consider that Menander was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most illustrious of the Indo-Greek kings", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p. 76

"Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Ashoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, p. 375.

On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kuá¹£Äá¹a World, Doris Srinivasan, BRILL, 2007, p. 101 [10]

Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 p. 170

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, by Amalananda Ghosh, BRILL p. 295

An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) p. 171

Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics, Andrew Stewart, University of California Press, 1993 p. 180

Buddhist Art & Antiquities of Himachal Pradesh, Up to 8th Century A.D., Omacanda HÄá¹á¸Ä, Indus Publishing, 1994 p. 48

Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p. 149ff

These "Greek-looking foreigners" are also described in Susan Huntington, "The art of ancient India", p. 100

Epigraphia Indica Vol.2 p. 395 inscription 364

John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi p. 348 inscription No.475

John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi p. 308 inscription No.89

John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi p. 345 inscription No.433

"During the century that followed Menander more than twenty rulers are known to have struck coins", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 270

"Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire, succeeded there (in the Paropamisadae) to the nomads who minted imitations of Hermaeus" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p. 117

"Maues himself issued joint coins with Machene, (...) probably a daughter of one of the Indo-Greek houses" Senior, Indo-Scythians, p. xxxvi

"The Indo-Scythian conquerors, who, also they adopted the Greek types, minted money with their own names". Bopearachchci, "Monnaies", p. 121

"The coinage of the former (the Audumbaras) to whom their trade was of importance, starts somewhere in the first century BC; they occasionally imitate the types of Demetrius and Apollodotus I", Tarn, p. 325.

The Kunindas must have been included in the Greek empire, not only because of their geographical position, but because they started coining at the time which saw the end of Greek rule and the establishment of their independence", Tarn, p. 238.

"Further evidence of the commercial success of the Greek drachms is seen in the fact that they influenced the coinage of the Audumbaras and the Kunindas", Narain The Indo-Greeks, p. 114

"The wealthy Audumbaras (...) some of their coins after Greek rule ended imitated Greek types", Tarn, p. 239.

"Later, in the first century a ruler of the Kunindas, Amogabhuti, issued a silver coinage "which would compete in the market with the later Indo-Greek silver"", Tarn, p. 325.

The Sanskrit inscription reads "Yavanarajyasya sodasuttare varsasate 100 10 6". R.Salomon, "The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription", in "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest", p373

"Around 10 AD, with the joint rule of Straton II and his son Straton in the area of Sagala, the last Greek kingdom succumbed to the attacks of Rajuvula, the Indo-Scythian satrap of Mathura.", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p. 125

Epigraphia Indica Vol.18 p. 328 Inscription No10

Shane Wallace Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries 2016, p. p. 210

Buddhist architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 98â99

World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 Ê»AlÄ« JÄvÄ«d, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 p. 42

Epigraphia Indica p. 90ff

Religions and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West, BRILL, 2013 p. 97 Note 97

Epigraphia Indica pp. 61â62

Problems of Chronology in Gandharan Art, Juhyung Rhi, pp. 35â51, 2017

Problems of Chronology in Gandharan Art p. 39

Problems of Chronology in Gandharan Art p. 37

Source

Strabo 15.2.1(9)

Ath. Deip. I.32

Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67

Polybius 11.39

"Diodorus testifies to the great love of the king of Palibothra, apparently a Mauryan king, for the Greeks" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", p. 362.

"Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suffered from the oppression of the Shunga (for whom they were aliens and heretics), Demetrios must have appeared as a saviour" Mario Bussagli, p. 101

"The term Yavana may well have been first applied by the Indians to the Greeks of various cities of Asia Minor who were settled in the areas contiguous to north-west India" Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p. 227

"Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and derivatives, viz. Yona, Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Prakrit form from Yavana", Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p. 228

The coins of the Greek and Scythic kings of Bactria and India in the British Museum, p. 50 and Pl. XII-7 [12]

The Contribution of the Emperor Asoka Maurya to the Development of the Humanitarian Ideal in Warfare 30-04-1995 Article, International Review of the Red Cross, No. 305, by Gerald Draper

Lahiri, Bela (1974). Indigenous states of northern India, circa 200 B.C. to 320 A.D. University of Calcutta

"It is not unlikely that "Dikaios", which is translated Dhramaika in the Kharosthi legend, may be connected with his adoption of the Buddhist faith." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 124

"It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is connected with Buddhism", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p. 122

Handbuch der Orientalistik, Kurt A. Behrendt, BRILL, 2004, p. 49 sig

Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.) Satyendra Nath Naskar, Abhinav Publications, 1996, p. 69 [13]

The Crossroads of Asia, Elizabeth Errington, Ancient India and Iran Trust, Fitzwilliam Museum, Ancient India and Iran Trust, 1992, p. 16

Mentioned throughout "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", Osmund Bopearachchi, BibliothÃ¨que Nationale, 1991

"The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits of Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that have come down to us from antiquity" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p134

"Those tiny territories of the Indo-Greek kings must have been lively and commercially flourishing places", India: The ancient past, Burjor Avari, p. 130

"No doubt the Greeks of Bactria and India presided over a flourishing economy. This is clearly indicated by their coinage and the monetary exchange they had established with other currencies." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 275.

Fussman, JA 1993, p. 127 and Bopearachchi, "Graeco-Bactrian issues of the later Indo-Greek kings", Num. Chron. 1990, pp. 79â104)

Science and civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology by Joseph Needham, Gwei-Djen Lu p. 237ff

"Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first century BC, the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong", McEvilley, p. 379

"The use of the Greek months by the Sakas and later rulers points to the conclusion that they employed a system of dating started by their predecessors." Narain, "Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 190

"Parthians stations", 1st century AD. Original text in paragraph 19 of Parthian stations

O. Bopearachchi, "Monnaies grÃ©co-bactriennes et indo-grecques, Catalogue raisonnÃ©", BibliothÃ¨que Nationale, Paris, 1991, p. 453

History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE â 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p. 9 [15]

A full list of references for this article are available at the Indo-Greek Kingdom Wikipedia page

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Indo-Greek Kingdom

Geographic Scope

Duration

Cultural Synthesis

Historical Trajectory

Origins and Expansion

Notable Rulers

Interactions and Decline

Cultural Fusion

Language and Script

Architectural Influence

Artistic Expressions

Spiritual Landscape

Greco-Buddhism

Greco-Buddhism

Syncretic Beliefs

Artistic Legacy

Masterful Coinage

Sculptural Influence

Material Culture

Economic Vitality

Monetary System

Trade Networks

Inter-regional Commerce

Military Prowess

Hellenistic Warfare

Steppe Influences

Elephant Corps

Enduring Impact

Cultural Diffusion

Religious Syncretism

Numismatic Heritage

Chronological Overview

Key Periods and Rulers

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice