What is the fundamental definition of irreligion?

Irreligion is defined as the absence, rejection, or indifference towards religious beliefs or practices. It encompasses a broad spectrum of philosophical and intellectual viewpoints, including atheism, agnosticism, religious skepticism, rationalism, secularism, and non-religious spirituality.

When did scholarly research on irreligion begin to increase significantly?

Scholarly research specifically on irreligion saw a notable increase around the year 2010, indicating a growing academic interest in the topic in recent decades.

What trend has been observed in the number of secular individuals globally over recent decades?

Over the past several decades, there has been a significant increase in the number of secular individuals worldwide, with a particularly rapid rise observed in the early 21st century across many countries.

What is the relationship between highly secular societies and their societal health?

Research suggests that highly secular societies tend to be both societally healthy and successful, indicating a potential positive correlation between secularism and societal well-being.

What is the secularization hypothesis, and what is the counter-argument?

The secularization hypothesis posits that the spread of scientific knowledge will lead to a decline in religious beliefs, replacing them with more naturalistic outlooks. However, other researchers disagree, proposing alternative theories such as the 'contra-secularization hypothesis'.

What are the Pew Research Center's projections for the irreligious population by 2050?

According to Pew Research Center projections, the share of irreligious people in the world population is expected to decline from 16.4% to 13.2% by 2050, primarily due to faster population growth in highly religious countries and shrinking populations in less religious ones.

How do younger generations typically compare to older generations in terms of religiosity?

Younger generations generally tend to be less religious than their elders. This trend may continue even as they age, especially in more affluent and stable countries.

Is secularity inherently opposed to religion?

No, secularity is not necessarily opposed to religion. Most forms of secularity do not automatically lead to atheism or irreligion, suggesting that one can be secular while still holding religious beliefs or participating in religious practices.

What is the 'religious congruence fallacy' mentioned in the text?

The religious congruence fallacy occurs when explanations or interpretations incorrectly assume that an individual's religious beliefs and behaviors are always consistent. This fallacy has been noted to influence critiques of religion.

Why is it difficult to accurately estimate the number of irreligious people globally?

Estimating the global irreligious population is challenging because census data often does not distinguish between atheists, agnostics, and those who identify as 'nothing in particular.' Additionally, cultural differences in the concepts of 'religion' and 'secularism' complicate measurement, especially outside Western contexts.

How does 'cultural religion' affect the measurement of irreligion?

Cultural religion, where individuals may identify with a religious tradition for cultural or familial reasons without adhering to its doctrines or practices, can obscure the true extent of irreligion. Many people who are religiously unaffiliated may still participate in religious practices or hold some religious beliefs due to deep cultural roots.

What was the estimated number of nonreligious or nontheistic people in 2016 according to Zuckerman, Galen, and Pasquale?

In 2016, Zuckerman, Galen, and Pasquale estimated that there were approximately 400 million nonreligious or nontheistic people worldwide.

What did a 2022 Gallup International Association survey report regarding global religiosity?

A 2022 Gallup International Association survey across 61 countries found that 62% of respondents identified as religious, 25% as not religious, and 10% as atheists, with the remainder unsure. This showed a continued trend of religiosity, though with significant non-religious segments.

Which regions were identified as having the least religious populations in the 2022 Gallup survey?

The European Union, East Asia, and Oceania were identified as the regions with the least religious populations according to the 2022 Gallup International Association survey.

According to Pew Research Center data from 2010, how many people were religiously unaffiliated, and where did most reside?

In 2010, the Pew Research Center estimated that over 1.1 billion people, or about 16.3% of the global population, were religiously unaffiliated. The majority (76%) of these individuals resided in the Asia-Pacific region.

What is the etymological origin of the term 'irreligion'?

The term 'irreligion' likely originates from French or Latin, combining the noun 'religion' with the prefix 'ir-' (a form of 'in-') signifying 'not.' It was first attested in French as 'irréligion' in 1527 and in English as 'irreligion' in 1598.

How does the Encyclopedia of Religion and Society define irreligion?

The Encyclopedia of Religion and Society defines irreligion as the active rejection of religion in general or its specific organized forms, distinguishing it from 'secular,' which simply denotes the absence of religion. It notes that 'irreligion' is increasingly used synonymously with 'unbelief'.

What are the two main definitions of 'irreligion' provided by the Oxford English Dictionary?

The Oxford English Dictionary offers two definitions for 'irreligion': one is considered obsolete and describes it as a want of religion, hostility to, or disregard for religious principles, or irreligious conduct. The second definition refers to the quality or state of being irreligious.

What is 'agnostic atheism'?

Agnostic atheism is a philosophical stance that combines atheism (the lack of belief in deities) with agnosticism (the view that the existence of deities is unknowable). Agnostic atheists do not believe in any deity and also claim that a deity's existence is either unknowable in principle or currently unknown.

Deism is a philosophical and theological position that asserts that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a Supreme Being as the creator of the universe. It rejects revelation as a source of knowledge and typically does not involve belief in divine intervention or supernatural occurrences.

What is 'freethought'?

Freethought is a philosophical stance that emphasizes forming opinions based on logic, reason, and empirical evidence, rather than relying on tradition, authority, revelation, or dogma. It encourages critical thinking and skepticism towards religious claims.

What is 'ignosticism'?

Ignosticism, also known as 'igtheism,' is the philosophical position that the question of God's existence is meaningless because the term 'God' lacks a coherent and unambiguous definition. It suggests that before discussing God's existence, one must first define what 'God' means.

How does China's constitution address freedom of religion and belief?

China's Constitution, particularly Article 36, states that no state organ, organization, or individual may compel citizens to believe in or disbelieve in any religion, nor discriminate against those who do or do not believe. An earlier version (1978) explicitly mentioned the freedom to propagate atheism.

What demographic factors are associated with a higher likelihood of being secular?

Men, younger people, and individuals of Asian heritage or Jewish heritage are generally more likely to identify as secular compared to other demographic groups.

What is the 'existential security' hypothesis regarding religiosity?

The 'existential security' hypothesis, proposed by Inglehart and Norris, suggests that societal wealth and security, rather than scientific knowledge, are the primary drivers of religiosity. They argue that increased poverty and instability foster religiosity, while wealth and security diminish its role and associated social constraints.

What trend did Inglehart and Norris observe in religiosity between 1981 and 2007?

From 1981 to 2007, Inglehart and Norris observed an overall increase in religiosity in 33 out of 49 studied countries, particularly in developing and former communist nations, while most high-income countries became less religious.

What significant reversal in religious trends occurred between 2007 and 2019?

Between 2007 and 2019, a sharp reversal occurred, with 43 out of 49 countries studied becoming less religious. This decline in religiosity was observed across most of the world, including high-income countries and many poorer nations.

Which country is noted as a significant exception to the general trend of declining religiosity?

India is highlighted as a major exception to the general global trend of declining religiosity observed in many countries.

How did Colin Campbell's sociological studies in the 1970s describe irreligion?

In the 1970s, social scientists like Colin Campbell tended to describe irreligion from a perspective that viewed religion as normative. Irreligion was often characterized as hostility, reactivity, or indifference towards religion, or as a development stemming from radical theological viewpoints.

What did Glenn M. Vernon note about the definition of 'no religion' in US census respondents in 1968?

In 1968, sociologist Glenn M. Vernon observed that US census respondents identifying as 'no religion' were insufficiently defined because the category was based on a negative identification. He contrasted this with political affiliation labels and noted the difficulty in defining religious activity beyond formal group membership or participation.

What is the significance of the term 'Nones' in demographic surveys?

The term 'Nones' is used in demographic surveys to refer to individuals unaffiliated with any organized religion, often because 'None' is the last option in affiliation choices. This category can encompass those lacking organizational affiliation or personal belief, making it a more specific concept than general irreligion.

What is 'transtheism'?

Transtheism is a philosophical or religious viewpoint that is neither theistic nor atheistic, but rather transcends these categories. It suggests a perspective that moves beyond the traditional dichotomy of belief or disbelief in God.

Apatheism is characterized by an attitude of apathy or indifference towards the existence or non-existence of any deity. It implies a lack of concern about religious or theological questions.

What does 'secular ethics' focus on as the basis for morality?

Secular ethics bases morality solely on human faculties such as logic, empathy, reason, and ethical intuition, rather than on divine revelation or supernatural guidance, which are common sources of ethics in many religions.

What is 'antitheism'?

Antitheism is the explicit opposition to theism, which is the belief in the existence of God or gods. It typically involves a direct opposition to the belief in any deity.

What is 'alatry' or 'alatrism'?

Alatrism, or alatry, is the recognition of one or more gods' existence without actively worshipping any deity. It often includes the belief that religious rituals lack supernatural significance and that gods are indifferent to worship and prayers.

How is 'secularism' sometimes understood in the United States?

In the United States, 'secularism' is sometimes used as a synonym for naturalism or atheism, although it can also refer to a political conviction advocating for the minimization of religion in the public sphere, regardless of personal religiosity.

What does 'spiritual but not religious' (SBNR) signify?

'Spiritual but not religious' (SBNR) describes individuals who reject traditional or organized religion but maintain strong metaphysical beliefs. While sometimes included under nonreligion, they are often classified as a distinct group.

What is 'theological noncognitivism'?

Theological noncognitivism argues that religious language, particularly terms like 'God,' is not cognitively meaningful. It is sometimes considered synonymous with ignosticism.

What is the primary characteristic of 'New Atheism'?

New Atheism represents the position held by certain atheist academics, writers, scientists, and philosophers in the 20th and 21st centuries, such as Richard Dawkins and Sam Harris, who are known for their critiques of religion.

What is the main difference between 'secularism' and 'irreligion' according to the Encyclopedia of Religion and Society?

According to the Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, secularism refers to the absence of religion, while irreligion is defined as the active rejection of religion. Contemporary usage often equates irreligion with unbelief.

What is the historical context for the term 'irreligion' appearing in English?

The term 'irreligion' first appeared in English in 1598, following its earlier attestation in French ('irréligion') in 1527. It was later adopted into Dutch in the 17th century.

What is the 'existential security' theory's explanation for the decline of religion?

The 'existential security' theory posits that as societies become wealthier and more secure, with lower infant mortality and higher life expectancy, the social and emotional need for religion diminishes. This leads to less adherence to religious norms, such as those concerning family size and social behaviors.

What did Pew Research project regarding the global population of unaffiliated individuals by 2060?

Pew Research projected that by 2060, the number of unaffiliated individuals would increase by over 35 million, but their overall percentage of the global population would decrease to 13% due to faster population growth in religious regions and lower fertility rates in less religious ones.

What is the significance of 'cultural religion' when analyzing demographic data on irreligion?

'Cultural religion' is significant because it highlights that many individuals may identify with a religion for cultural reasons without personal belief or practice. This means that simply being unaffiliated in surveys doesn't always equate to being objectively nonreligious, as seen in countries with deep religious traditions.

What is the relationship between intelligence, religiosity, and fertility rates according to some theories?

Some theories suggest an inverse association between intelligence and religiosity, and a negative correlation between intelligence and fertility. This could potentially lead to a decline in non-religious identities if countries with lower religiosity also have lower birth rates.

How do the demographic trends in less religious versus more religious countries potentially impact the future global religious landscape?

Less religious countries often have lower birth rates and aging populations, while more religious countries tend to have higher fertility rates and younger populations. This demographic difference is projected to lead to a relative increase in the global share of religious people, even as secularization continues in many individual countries.

What does the UN Human Rights Committee's General Comment 22 state about freedom of belief?

General Comment 22 of the UN Human Rights Committee clarifies that freedom of belief includes theistic, non-theistic, and atheistic beliefs, and the right to not profess any religion. It emphasizes the freedom to change one's religion or adopt atheistic views without facing physical force or penal sanctions.

What is the difference between 'secular' and 'irreligious' as defined by some scholars?

Some scholars differentiate between 'secular,' which simply refers to the absence of religion in public life or personal identity, and 'irreligious,' which implies an active rejection or opposition to religion. However, contemporary usage often blurs these distinctions.

What is the 'existential security' hypothesis's view on the relationship between societal conditions and religious adherence?

The 'existential security' hypothesis suggests that societal conditions like poverty and instability increase the need for religious support, thus fostering religiosity. Conversely, wealth and stability reduce this need, leading to a decline in religious adherence and a greater acceptance of more liberal social norms.

Irreligion Wiki: The Spectrum of Non-Belief: An Exploration of Irreligion

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

Overview

A Broad Spectrum

Irreligion encompasses the absence, rejection, or indifference towards religious beliefs and practices. It is a multifaceted concept drawing from diverse philosophical and intellectual traditions, including atheism, agnosticism, religious skepticism, rationalism, secularism, and non-religious spirituality. Individuals identifying as irreligious hold a wide array of perspectives on religion's role in their lives.

Rising Secularism

In recent decades, particularly in the early 21st century, there has been a notable increase in the number of individuals identifying as secular across numerous countries. This trend aligns with the secularization hypothesis, which posits a decline in religious adherence and a rise in scientific or naturalistic worldviews. However, the trajectory and interpretation of these trends are subjects of ongoing academic debate.

Definitional Challenges

Quantifying irreligion presents considerable challenges due to varying cultural contexts and the lack of universal definitions for "religion" or "secular." Survey methodologies must be culturally sensitive, as concepts of religion and secularity are not uniformly understood across all societies. Furthermore, self-identification can be influenced by political or social anxieties, and many individuals who are religiously unaffiliated may still hold certain spiritual beliefs or engage in religious practices.

Definition

Nuances of Meaning

The term "irreligion" is often characterized differently depending on the context. Some scholars define it as the active rejection of religion, distinguishing it from the mere absence of religious affiliation. Dictionaries define it as a lack of, or hostility towards, religious principles or practices. It is important to note that identifying as "non-religious" in surveys does not always equate to a complete absence of religious or spiritual beliefs, as cultural religious identity can persist independently of personal adherence.

Secular vs. Irreligious

While often used interchangeably, "secular" and "irreligious" carry distinct connotations. Secularity typically refers to the separation of religion from public life or institutions, irrespective of an individual's personal beliefs. Irreligion, conversely, more directly addresses the state of an individual's personal belief system, specifically the lack of or opposition to religious faith.

Types of Non-Belief

A Diverse Taxonomy

Irreligion encompasses a broad range of philosophical stances and belief systems. These include, but are not limited to, atheism (lack of belief in deities), agnosticism (the view that the existence of deities is unknowable), freethought (reliance on reason and evidence), secular humanism (emphasis on human values and reason), and various forms of opposition to religion such as anti-clericalism, antireligion, and antitheism.

Agnostic Atheism: Holding both atheistic (lack of belief in deities) and agnostic (unknowability of deities) positions.
Agnosticism: The view that the existence of God, the divine, or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable.
Alatrism: Recognizing the existence of gods but deliberately lacking worship.
Anti-clericalism: Opposition to religious authority, particularly in social or political spheres.
Antireligion: Opposition to or rejection of religion in any form.
Antitheism: Explicit opposition to theism; direct opposition to belief in any deity.
Apatheism: An attitude of apathy or indifference toward the existence or non-existence of deities.
Atheism: The lack of belief that any deities exist; can be positive (assertion of no deities) or negative (lack of belief).
Deism: A philosophical stance asserting that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a Supreme Being as the creator, without reliance on revelation.
Freethought: Forming opinions based on logic, reason, and empiricism rather than authority, tradition, or dogma.
Ietsism: An unspecified belief in an undetermined transcendent reality.
Ignosticism: The idea that the question of God's existence is meaningless due to the lack of a coherent definition for "God."
Naturalism: The belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe, excluding the supernatural.
New Atheism: A contemporary movement associated with prominent atheist thinkers advocating for atheism.
Nones: Individuals who identify as having no religious affiliation, often a survey category encompassing atheists, agnostics, and those selecting "nothing in particular."
Nontheism: A broad category that includes a range of religious or spiritual paths not centered on a personal deity, such as some forms of Buddhism or Jainism.
Post-theism: A view that theism/atheism dichotomy is obsolete, suggesting the God-idea belongs to a past developmental stage.
Religious Skepticism: A form of skepticism specifically directed towards religious claims.
Secular Ethics: Moral philosophy based on human faculties like logic and empathy, independent of supernatural revelation.
Secular Humanism: A worldview prioritizing human agency, reason, and ethical values over divine matters.
Secular Liberalism: A political philosophy emphasizing secularist principles and values.
Secular Paganism: Adherence to pagan virtues and principles within a secular framework.
Secularism: Advocacy for minimizing religion in the public sphere, often distinct from personal religiosity.
Spiritual but Not Religious (SBNR): Individuals who reject organized religion but maintain personal metaphysical or spiritual beliefs.
Theological Noncognitivism: The argument that religious language, particularly terms like "God," is not cognitively meaningful.
Transtheism: A philosophical or religious system that transcends both theistic and atheistic classifications.

Historical Trajectories

Early Sociological Views

Sociological inquiry into irreligion gained momentum in the early 1970s. Early scholars often framed irreligion in terms of hostility, reactivity, or indifference towards established religion, sometimes viewing it as a consequence of radical theological shifts. The difficulty in defining religious activity beyond formal affiliation was noted, highlighting the complexity of measuring non-belief.

Secularization and Its Reversals

Thinkers from Marx to Weber and Durkheim predicted that the advancement of scientific knowledge would lead to the decline of religion. While industrialization did not eradicate religion, sociological studies from the late 20th century indicated a gradual rise in non-religious identification in many societies. However, research from 2007 to 2019 suggests a significant reversal, with a widespread decline in religiosity observed across most countries, challenging earlier predictions of a linear progression towards secularization.

Global Demographics

Distribution and Data Challenges

Estimating the global irreligious population is complex, with figures varying based on survey methodologies and cultural interpretations of "religion" and "secular." Data from organizations like Pew Research Center and Gallup International Association indicate significant numbers of religiously unaffiliated individuals worldwide. The Asia-Pacific region, particularly China, hosts the largest proportion of this demographic. However, cultural religious identity and practices often persist among those who self-identify as non-religious.

Key demographic trends suggest a decline in religiosity in many high-income countries, while some developing nations and former communist states have also become less religious. Conversely, India stands out as a notable exception with increasing religiosity. Factors such as fertility rates, life expectancy, and societal security are posited as influences on these trends.

Population Statistics

Data from various studies provide estimates of the non-religious population. It is crucial to note that survey categories like "unaffiliated" often encompass atheists, agnostics, and those who simply do not identify with a specific religion, leading to differing figures. The table below presents comparative data from Pew Research (2012) and Zuckerman (2004) for selected countries, illustrating the variability in estimates.

Country	Pew (2012)	Zuckerman (2004)
Mainland China	700,680,000	103,907,840 – 181,838,720
India		102,870,000
Japan	72,120,000	81,493,120 – 82,766,450
Vietnam	26,040,000	66,978,900
Russia	23,180,000	34,507,680 – 69,015,360
Germany	20,350,000	33,794,250 – 40,388,250
France	17,580,000	25,982,320 – 32,628,960
United Kingdom		18,684,010 – 26,519,240
South Korea	22,350,000	14,579,400 – 25,270,960
Ukraine		9,546,400
United States	50,980,000	8,790,840 – 26,822,520
Netherlands		6,364,020 – 7,179,920
Canada		6,176,520 – 9,752,400
Spain		6,042,150 – 9,667,440
Taiwan		5,460,000
Hong Kong		5,240,000
Czech Republic		5,328,940 – 6,250,121
Australia		4,779,120 – 4,978,250
Belgium		4,346,160 – 4,449,640
Sweden		4,133,560 – 7,638,100
Italy		3,483,420 – 8,708,550
North Korea	17,350,000	3,404,700
Hungary		3,210,240 – 4,614,720
Bulgaria		2,556,120 – 3,007,200
Denmark		2,327,590 – 4,330,400
Turkey		1,956,990 - 6,320,550
Belarus		1,752,870
Greece		1,703,680
Kazakhstan		1,665,840 – 1,817,280
Argentina		1,565,800 – 3,131,600
Austria		1,471,500 – 2,125,500
Finland		1,460,200 – 3,129,000
Norway		1,418,250 – 3,294,000
Switzerland		1,266,670 – 2,011,770
Israel		929,850 – 2,293,630
New Zealand		798,800 – 878,680
Cuba		791,630
Slovenia		703,850 – 764,180
Estonia		657,580
Dominican Republic		618,380
Singapore		566,020
Slovakia		542,400 – 1,518,720
Lithuania		469,040
Latvia		461,200 – 668,740
Portugal		420,960 – 947,160
Armenia		118,740
Uruguay		407,880
Kyrgyzstan		355,670
Croatia		314,790
Albania		283,600
Mongolia		247,590
Iceland		47,040 – 67,620
Brazil	15,410,000

Human Rights

Freedom of Belief

International human rights frameworks, such as Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, explicitly protect theistic, non-theistic, and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief. Signatories are obligated to prevent the use of coercion or penal sanctions to compel individuals to change their beliefs.

Legal Protections

Most democratic nations uphold freedom of religion or belief, implicitly including the freedom of thought for those who do not adhere to any religion. Some national constitutions, like that of China, explicitly state that citizens cannot be compelled to believe in or not believe in any religion, nor be discriminated against based on their religious stance.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Irreligion" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about irreligion while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

christianity in australia

References

Jacques Berlinerblau, How to be Secular: A Call to Arms for Religious Freedom (2012, Houghton-Mifflin Harcourt). p. 53.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Irreligion Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer

Important Considerations

This document has been generated by an AI and is intended for academic and informational purposes. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, the content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data and may not be exhaustive or entirely current.

This is not professional advice. The information presented here does not substitute for expert consultation in sociology, philosophy, or religious studies. Readers are encouraged to consult primary sources and qualified professionals for in-depth understanding and specific applications.

The creators of this content are not liable for any errors, omissions, or consequences arising from the use of this information.

Irreligion: Charting the Non-Believer's Path

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview 💡

🌐 A Broad Spectrum

📈 Rising Secularism

🤔 Definitional Challenges

Definition ❓

🧐 Nuances of Meaning

⚖️ Secular vs. Irreligious

Types of Non-Belief 🧩

📚 A Diverse Taxonomy

Historical Trajectories 📜

⏳ Early Sociological Views

🔄 Secularization and Its Reversals

Global Demographics 📊

🗺️ Distribution and Data Challenges

🔢 Population Statistics

Human Rights ⚖️

📜 Freedom of Belief

🏛️ Legal Protections

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

🎓 Important Considerations

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

A Broad Spectrum

Rising Secularism

Definitional Challenges

Definition

Nuances of Meaning

Secular vs. Irreligious

Types of Non-Belief

A Diverse Taxonomy

Historical Trajectories

Early Sociological Views

Secularization and Its Reversals

Global Demographics

Distribution and Data Challenges

Population Statistics

Human Rights

Freedom of Belief

Legal Protections

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Considerations