What is the Köppen climate classification system?

The Köppen climate classification system is a widely used method for categorizing Earth's climates into five main groups based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. These groups are designated by the letters A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar).

Who developed the Köppen climate classification system?

The Köppen climate classification system was initially developed and published in 1884 by Wladimir Köppen, a German-Russian climatologist who lived from 1846 to 1940.

How has the Köppen climate classification system evolved since its initial publication?

Wladimir Köppen himself revised his classification system in 1918 and 1936. Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger introduced further modifications in 1954 and 1961, leading to the system sometimes being referred to as the Köppen-Geiger climate classification.

What was the original basis for Wladimir Köppen's climate classification?

Wladimir Köppen, also a botanist, originally designed his climate groups based on their relationship with vegetation types. This foundation makes the system useful for understanding ecosystem conditions and predicting the distribution of plant life in different climates.

What are the five main climate groups in the Köppen classification?

The five main climate groups are A for Tropical climates, B for Dry (arid and semi-arid) climates, C for Temperate climates, D for Continental climates, and E for Polar climates.

How are Köppen climate classifications further refined beyond the main group letter?

After the main group letter (e.g., C for Temperate), a second letter typically indicates the seasonal precipitation pattern (like 'f' for no dry season, 's' for dry summer, or 'w' for dry winter). A third letter is often used to denote the temperature characteristics, particularly the summer heat (e.g., 'a' for hot summer, 'b' for warm summer).

What is the defining characteristic of a Tropical climate (Group A)?

Tropical climates are defined by having an average temperature of 18°C (64.4°F) or higher for every month of the year, along with significant precipitation.

What distinguishes a Tropical Rainforest climate (Af) from other tropical climates?

The Tropical Rainforest climate (Af) is specifically characterized by having at least 60 mm (2.4 inches) of precipitation in every month, indicating consistently high rainfall throughout the year, typically found near the equator.

What defines a Tropical Monsoon climate (Am)?

A Tropical Monsoon climate (Am) is a type of tropical climate where the driest month has less than 60 mm (2.4 inches) of rainfall, but more than the amount calculated by the formula 100 minus (total annual precipitation in mm / 25). This indicates a distinct, though often short, dry season.

What are the key features of a Tropical Savanna climate (Aw or As)?

Tropical Savanna climates (Aw or As) are characterized by a pronounced dry season. The driest month receives less than 60 mm (2.4 inches) of precipitation and also less than the threshold calculated using the formula related to annual precipitation and seasonality.

How is the precipitation threshold for Arid (B) climates determined?

The threshold is calculated by multiplying the average annual temperature in Celsius by 20 and adding a factor (280, 140, or 0) based on the seasonality of precipitation. If annual rainfall is below 50% of this threshold, it's classified as BW (desert); if it's between 50% and 100%, it's BS (semi-arid).

What do the letters 'h' and 'k' signify in the Köppen B climate classification?

In the B climate classification, 'h' denotes a low-latitude climate with a high average annual temperature (above 18°C or 64.4°F), typically found in hot deserts and semi-arid regions. 'k' denotes a middle-latitude climate with a lower average annual temperature (below 18°C), characteristic of cold deserts and semi-arid regions.

What is the difference between a Hot Desert (BWh) and a Cold Desert (BWk)?

Both BWh and BWk are arid (desert) climates. BWh specifically refers to hot deserts, usually found in subtropical regions with high average annual temperatures, while BWk refers to cold deserts, typically located at higher altitudes or latitudes where annual temperatures are lower.

What defines a Temperate climate (Group C)?

Temperate climates (Group C) are defined by having their coldest month average between 0°C (32°F) and 18°C (64.4°F), and at least one month must average above 10°C (50°F). This range generally excludes polar and extreme continental conditions.

What do the second letters 's', 'w', and 'f' indicate in the Köppen C climate classification?

In Group C climates, 's' signifies a dry summer, 'w' signifies a dry winter, and 'f' indicates that there is no significant dry season, meaning precipitation is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year.

What do the third letters 'a', 'b', and 'c' signify in the Köppen C climate classification?

The third letter in Group C climates specifies the summer heat: 'a' indicates a hot summer with the warmest month averaging above 22°C (71.6°F); 'b' indicates a warm summer where the warmest month averages below 22°C but at least four months average above 10°C (50°F); and 'c' indicates a cool summer with only one to three months averaging above 10°C.

What are the defining characteristics of a Mediterranean climate (Cs)?

Mediterranean climates (Cs) are typically found on the western sides of continents between 30° and 45° latitude. They are known for their moderate temperatures, rainy winters influenced by the polar front, and hot, dry summers dominated by subtropical high-pressure systems.

How does a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) differ from a Warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb)?

The primary distinction is summer temperature: Csa climates have warmest month averages above 22°C (71.6°F), while Csb climates have warmest month averages below 22°C, though still with at least four months above 10°C (50°F). Both feature dry summers and wet winters.

What defines a Humid Subtropical climate (Cfa)?

Humid Subtropical climates (Cfa) are typically found on the eastern sides of continents in the 20s and 30s latitudes. They feature mild winters (coldest month above 0°C or -3°C), hot summers (at least one month above 22°C), and relatively consistent precipitation throughout the year, often with summer thunderstorms.

What is an Oceanic climate (Cfb)?

An Oceanic climate (Cfb), also known as a Marine West Coast climate, is found in higher middle latitudes on western continental margins. It is characterized by mild temperatures year-round, changeable weather, and precipitation distributed relatively evenly throughout the seasons, without significant dry periods.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with cold summers and dry winters, often found in highlands?

This describes the Cwc climate, which is a dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate, typically found at high elevations adjacent to Cwb regions.

What defines a Subarctic climate (Dfc)?

Subarctic climates (Dfc) fall under the Continental group (D) and are characterized by very cold winters (coldest month below 0°C or -3°C) and short, mild summers, with only one to three months averaging above 10°C (50°F).

What is the main difference between Continental climates (Group D) and Temperate climates (Group C)?

Continental climates (Group D) are distinguished by having at least one month with an average temperature below 0°C (32°F) or -3°C (26.6°F), indicating colder winters than Temperate climates (Group C), which have their coldest month above freezing.

What is the defining characteristic of Polar climates (Group E)?

Polar climates (Group E) are defined by having the warmest month of the year with an average temperature below 10°C (50°F), signifying consistently cold conditions year-round, with no true summer.

What is the difference between a Tundra climate (ET) and an Ice Cap climate (EF)?

Both are polar climates. A Tundra climate (ET) has its warmest month averaging between 0°C (32°F) and 10°C (50°F), allowing for limited vegetation. An Ice Cap climate (EF) is perpetually frozen, with all months averaging below 0°C (32°F), found in places like Antarctica.

What does the third letter 'd' signify in the Köppen D climate classification?

The letter 'd' in Group D climates indicates an extremely cold winter, specifically when the coldest month averages below -38°C (-36.4°F). This is characteristic of the Dfd, Dwd, and Dsd climate types.

Where are Humid Continental climates (Dfa/Dfb) typically located?

Humid Continental climates are generally found in the interiors of continents and on their eastern coasts, usually north of 40°N latitude, experiencing significant seasonal temperature variations with hot or warm summers and cold winters.

What is the ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification?

The Köppen classification is ecologically significant because it links climate characteristics (temperature, precipitation, seasonality) directly to vegetation types. This allows it to be used effectively for mapping climate zones and predicting associated ecosystem conditions and potential changes.

How has climate change been studied using the Köppen classification?

Researchers use the Köppen classification to analyze shifts in climate zones over time, identifying changes from wetter/colder to drier/hotter classifications. Studies suggest these shifts are often driven by anthropogenic factors, impacting vegetation patterns.

What does the 'n' designation mean in the Köppen climate classification?

The letter 'n' can be added to B climate classifications (like BWn or BSn) to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog, often found in specific coastal desert or semi-arid regions.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with hot summers and dry winters, typically found on western continental coasts between 30° and 45° latitude?

This describes the Csa climate, known as a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate, which experiences dry summers and wet winters.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with warm summers and dry winters, typically found on western continental coasts between 30° and 45° latitude?

This describes the Csb climate, a Warm-summer Mediterranean climate, characterized by dry summers and wet winters, with milder summer temperatures compared to Csa.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with dry winters and humid subtropical characteristics?

This is the Cwa climate, a Dry-winter humid subtropical climate, often influenced by monsoons, typically found on the eastern sides of continents.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with dry winters and oceanic characteristics, often found in highlands?

This is the Cwb climate, a Dry-winter subtropical highland climate, which shares characteristics with oceanic climates but has distinct dry winters and is found at higher elevations.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with hot summers and no significant dry season?

This describes the Cfa climate, known as a Humid subtropical climate, typically found on the eastern sides of continents with consistent rainfall throughout the year.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with mild summers and no significant dry season?

This describes the Cfb climate, known as an Oceanic climate or Marine West Coast climate, characterized by mild temperatures and consistent precipitation year-round.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with cold winters and hot summers, often found in the interiors of continents?

This describes the Dfa climate, a Hot-summer humid continental climate, typically located in the interiors of continents in the Northern Hemisphere.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with cold winters and warm summers, often found in the interiors of continents?

This describes the Dfb climate, a Warm-summer humid continental climate, generally found poleward of Dfa climates or at higher latitudes.

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with very cold winters and short, mild summers?

This describes the Dfc climate, a Subarctic or boreal climate, typically found at high latitudes or high elevations, characterized by long, severe winters and brief summers.

What does the 'w' in Dwa and Dwb climates signify?

The 'w' indicates a dry winter. Dwa (Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental) and Dwb (Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental) climates experience significantly less precipitation in winter compared to summer due to monsoon circulation.

What does the 's' in Dsa and Dsb climates signify?

The 's' indicates a dry summer. Dsa and Dsb climates are Mediterranean-influenced continental climates, meaning they have dry summers and wetter winters, in addition to the continental characteristics of cold winters.

What is the primary difference between Dfa and Dfb climates?

The difference lies in the summer warmth: Dfa climates have hot summers, with the warmest month averaging above 22°C (71.6°F), while Dfb climates have warm summers, where the warmest month averages below 22°C but at least four months average above 10°C (50°F).

What is the Köppen classification for a climate with extremely severe winters?

Climates designated with a third letter 'd' (Dfd, Dwd, Dsd) signify extremely severe winters, where the coldest month averages below -38°C (-36.4°F). These are found primarily in eastern Siberia.

What is the defining temperature characteristic of all Polar climates (Group E)?

All Polar climates (Group E) are defined by having the warmest month of the year with an average temperature below 10°C (50°F), indicating consistently cold conditions throughout all seasons.

What is the Köppen classification for a Tundra climate?

The Tundra climate is classified as ET, characterized by having its warmest month average between 0°C (32°F) and 10°C (50°F). This climate type is found at high latitudes or high altitudes.

What is the Köppen classification for an Ice Cap climate?

The Ice Cap climate is classified as EF. This climate is defined by perpetual winter, where all 12 months of the year have average temperatures below 0°C (32°F), preventing any vegetation growth.

What is the significance of the -3°C (26.6°F) isotherm in the Köppen system?

The -3°C (26.6°F) isotherm is sometimes used as an alternative or supplementary threshold to the 0°C (32°F) mark for defining the boundary between temperate and continental climates. It roughly corresponds to the limit where snow cover typically lasts for a month or more.

What is the purpose of the 'See also' section in the Köppen climate classification article?

The 'See also' section provides links to related climate classification systems, such as the Trewartha classification, and other relevant topics like hardiness zones and lists of cities categorized by Köppen climate types, offering further context and information.

What does the 'a' in Cfa, Cwa, Csa, Dfa, Dwa, and Dsa climates signify?

The letter 'a' indicates a hot summer, meaning the warmest month in these climates averages above 22°C (71.6°F).

What does the 'b' in Cfb, Cwb, Csb, Dfb, Dwb, and Dsb climates signify?

The letter 'b' indicates a warm summer. In these climates, the warmest month averages below 22°C (71.6°F), but at least four months of the year must average above 10°C (50°F).

What does the 'c' in Cfc, Cwc, Dfc, Dwc, and Dsc climates signify?

The letter 'c' indicates a cool summer. In these climates, only one to three months of the year average above 10°C (50°F), indicating shorter, cooler summers compared to 'a' or 'b' summer designations.

K U00f6ppen Climate Classification Wiki: The Köppen Codex: Decoding Earth's Climates

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System Overview

A Global Standard

The Köppen climate classification system is the most widely adopted method for categorizing Earth's climates. Developed by climatologist Wladimir Köppen, it initially aimed to link climate zones with vegetation types. The system, first published in 1884 and subsequently refined by Köppen and later by Rudolf Geiger, uses a letter-based code to denote climate characteristics.

Hierarchical Structure

Climates are divided into five primary groups, denoted by the first letter:

A: Tropical
B: Arid (Dry)
C: Temperate
D: Continental
E: Polar

Subsequent letters refine these categories based on seasonal precipitation patterns and temperature variations.

Vegetation Link

Köppen's background as a botanist heavily influenced the system's design. The primary climate groups were established based on observable vegetation patterns, making the classification highly relevant for ecological studies. Understanding these zones helps predict dominant plant life and analyze ecosystem responses to climatic conditions.

Group A: Tropical Climates

Defining Characteristics

Tropical climates (Group A) are defined by consistently high temperatures, with every month averaging 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher. These regions, typically found within 10° latitude of the equator, are characterized by significant annual precipitation and lack distinct thermal seasons.

Subtypes: Rainforest & Monsoon

Af (Tropical Rainforest): Exhibits at least 60 mm (2.4 in) of precipitation in every month, indicating year-round wetness. These climates are often influenced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Am (Tropical Monsoon): Features a driest month with less than 60 mm of rainfall, but this amount is still substantial relative to the annual total, often calculated as 100 minus (total annual precipitation / 25). This subtype is shaped by seasonal monsoon winds.

Subtypes: Savanna

Aw/As (Tropical Savanna): Characterized by a pronounced dry season. The driest month receives less than 60 mm of rainfall and also less than the calculated threshold (100 - annual precipitation/25). 'Aw' denotes a dry winter, while 'As' signifies a dry summer, often due to rain shadow effects.

Group B: Arid & Semi-Arid Climates

Defining Characteristics

Arid (Desert) and semi-arid (Steppe) climates (Group B) are defined by low precipitation, where evaporation significantly exceeds rainfall. The threshold for classification depends on average annual temperature and seasonal precipitation distribution.

Desert Subtypes (BW)

BW (Arid/Desert): Annual precipitation is less than 50% of the calculated threshold. This category is further divided:

BWh (Hot Desert): Found in subtropical regions with high average annual temperatures (above 18 °C).
BWk (Cold Desert): Typically located in middle latitudes or at higher altitudes, with lower average annual temperatures (below 18 °C).

BWn denotes desert climates with frequent fog.

Semi-Arid Subtypes (BS)

BS (Semi-Arid/Steppe): Annual precipitation falls between 50% and 100% of the calculated threshold. Subtypes include:

BSh (Hot Semi-Arid): Similar to BWh but with slightly more rainfall, often found on the fringes of hot deserts.
BSk (Cold Semi-Arid): Similar to BWk but with more precipitation, typically found in continental interiors or rain shadows.

Group C: Temperate Climates

Defining Characteristics

Temperate climates (Group C) feature mild winters and warm summers. The coldest month averages between 0 °C (32 °F) and 18 °C (64.4 °F), while at least one month must average above 10 °C (50 °F). Precipitation patterns and summer heat levels further subdivide this group.

Mediterranean Climates (Cs)

Cs (Mediterranean): Characterized by dry summers and wet winters. This typically occurs on western continental coasts between 30° and 45° latitude.

Csa (Hot-summer Mediterranean): Warmest month averages above 22 °C.
Csb (Warm-summer Mediterranean): Warmest month averages below 22 °C.
Csc (Cold-summer Mediterranean): Rare, found at higher elevations or extreme latitudes.

Other Temperate Subtypes

Cfa (Humid Subtropical): Found on eastern continental coasts, with hot, wet summers and mild winters. Precipitation is generally distributed throughout the year.

Cfb (Oceanic/Marine West Coast): Mild summers and mild winters, with precipitation spread evenly. Common on western coasts in higher latitudes.

Cfc (Subpolar Oceanic): Similar to Cfb but with shorter, cooler summers.

Cw (Dry-winter Subtropical): Features dry winters and wet summers, often influenced by monsoons.

Cwa: Humid subtropical with dry winters.
Cwb: Subtropical highland with dry winters.
Cwc: Cold subtropical highland with dry winters.

Group D: Continental Climates

Defining Characteristics

Continental climates (Group D) are found in the interiors of large landmasses, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere. They are defined by having at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). These climates experience significant temperature variations between seasons.

Subarctic & Humid Continental

Dfa/Dwa/Dsa (Hot Summer Continental): Warmest month averages above 22 °C. 'Dwa' and 'Dsa' indicate dry winters, often with monsoon influence.

Dfb/Dwb/Dsb (Warm Summer Continental/Hemiboreal): Warmest month averages below 22 °C, but with at least four months above 10 °C. 'Dwb' and 'Dsb' indicate dry winters.

Subarctic Climates

Dfc/Dwc/Dsc (Subarctic/Boreal): Characterized by short, mild summers (1-3 months above 10 °C) and long, cold winters. Found poleward of other D climates or at high altitudes.

Dfd/Dwd/Dsd (Severe Subarctic): Extreme winters, with the coldest month averaging below -38 °C (-36.4 °F). These are among the coldest climates on Earth, found primarily in Siberia.

Group E: Polar Climates

Defining Characteristics

Polar climates (Group E) are defined by having the warmest month average below 10 °C (50 °F). These climates are found at high latitudes or high altitudes and are characterized by extremely cold temperatures year-round.

Tundra Climate (ET)

ET (Tundra): The warmest month has an average temperature between 0 °C (32 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F). This climate supports tundra vegetation and is found on the northern edges of continents and on high mountain slopes above the tree line.

Ice Cap Climate (EF)

EF (Ice Cap): All months of the year have average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F). This climate is dominant in Antarctica, interior Greenland, and the highest mountain summits, characterized by permanent ice and snow cover.

Ecological Significance

Biomass and Vegetation

The Köppen classification's strength lies in its empirical link between climate and vegetation. By using temperature and precipitation data, it provides a robust metric for describing climatic conditions relevant to ecosystem types. This allows for effective mapping of climate zones and their associated biomes, aiding in the prediction of plant distribution and ecological responses.

Climate Change Indicators

The system is increasingly utilized to monitor climate change. Studies analyzing Köppen classifications over time reveal shifts in climate zones, often indicating a trend towards warmer and drier conditions driven by anthropogenic factors. These shifts have significant implications for biodiversity, agriculture, and natural resource management.

Research indicates that approximately 5.7% of global land area has transitioned to drier and hotter climate classifications between 1950 and 2010. This observed change is attributed primarily to human activities rather than natural variations, highlighting the system's utility in tracking climate impacts.

Related Classifications

Alternative Systems

While Köppen is dominant, other classification systems exist, offering different perspectives or refinements:

Trewartha Climate Classification: Sought to create a more refined zone for middle latitudes, addressing a perceived generality in Köppen's Group C.
Holdridge Life Zones: Focuses on biotemperature and precipitation to define life zones, emphasizing ecological relationships.
Hardiness Zones: Primarily used in horticulture and agriculture, classifying regions based on their suitability for plant survival through winter temperatures.

Sources

Referenced Materials

This content is synthesized from foundational works and widely recognized climate science resources:

Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F. (2006). World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. *Meteorologische Zeitschrift*, *15*(3), 259-263.
Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., & McMahon, T. A. (2007). Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification. *Hydrology and Earth System Sciences*, *11*(5), 1633-1644.
Beck, H. E., Zimmermann, N. E., McVicar, T. R., Vergopolan, N., Berg, A., & Wood, E. F. (2018). Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution. *Scientific Data*, *5*(1), 180214.
McKnight, T. L., & Hess, D. (2000). *Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation*. Prentice Hall.
Critchfield, H. J. (1983). *General Climatology* (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Chan, D., & Wu, Q. (2015). Significant anthropogenic-induced changes of climate classes since 1950. *Scientific Reports*, *5*(13487).
Köppen, W. (1884). Die Wärmezonen der Erde... *Meteorologische Zeitschrift*, *20*(3).
Köppen, W. (1918). Klassification der Klimate nach Temperatur, Niederschlag und Jahreslauf. *Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen*, *64*.
Köppen, W., & Geiger, R. (1936). *Das geographische System der Klimate*. Borntraeger.
Geiger, R. (1954). Klassifikation der Klimate nach W. Köppen. In *Landolt-Börnstein – Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik* (Vol. 3, pp. 603-607). Springer.
George, M. R. Mediterranean Climate. *UCRangelands*. University of California.
National Weather Service. JetStream Max: Addition Köppen-Geiger Climate Subdivisions.

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References

A full list of references for this article are available at the Köppen climate classification Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It is based on publicly available data, primarily from Wikipedia, and has been refined to meet academic standards. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness, the information may not be exhaustive or entirely up-to-date.

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The Köppen Codex

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

System Overview ℹ️

🗺️ A Global Standard

🗂️ Hierarchical Structure

🌿 Vegetation Link

Group A: Tropical Climates ☀️

🌴 Defining Characteristics

🌧️ Subtypes: Rainforest & Monsoon

🌤️ Subtypes: Savanna

Group B: Arid & Semi-Arid Climates 🏜️

💧 Defining Characteristics

🌵 Desert Subtypes (BW)

🌾 Semi-Arid Subtypes (BS)

Group C: Temperate Climates 🌳

🌡️ Defining Characteristics

🌊 Mediterranean Climates (Cs)

☁️ Other Temperate Subtypes

Group D: Continental Climates ❄️

🥶 Defining Characteristics

🌲 Subarctic & Humid Continental

🏔️ Subarctic Climates

Group E: Polar Climates 🧊

🥶 Defining Characteristics

🌬️ Tundra Climate (ET)

🏔️ Ice Cap Climate (EF)

Ecological Significance 🌿

🌱 Biomass and Vegetation

📈 Climate Change Indicators

Related Classifications 🔗

📚 Alternative Systems

Sources 📜

📖 Referenced Materials

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📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

System Overview

A Global Standard

Hierarchical Structure

Vegetation Link

Group A: Tropical Climates

Defining Characteristics

Subtypes: Rainforest & Monsoon

Subtypes: Savanna

Group B: Arid & Semi-Arid Climates

Defining Characteristics

Desert Subtypes (BW)

Semi-Arid Subtypes (BS)

Group C: Temperate Climates

Defining Characteristics

Mediterranean Climates (Cs)

Other Temperate Subtypes

Group D: Continental Climates

Defining Characteristics

Subarctic & Humid Continental

Subarctic Climates

Group E: Polar Climates

Defining Characteristics

Tundra Climate (ET)

Ice Cap Climate (EF)

Ecological Significance

Biomass and Vegetation

Climate Change Indicators

Related Classifications

Alternative Systems

Sources

Referenced Materials

Teacher's Corner

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Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice