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Kazallu: A Lost Mesopotamian City-State Unveiled

An in-depth academic exploration into the historical trajectory, divine affiliations, and enduring mystery of an ancient urban center in central Mesopotamia.

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Overview of Kazallu

The Enigma of a Lost City

Kazallu (also rendered as Ka-zal-luki) is an ancient city in central Mesopotamia, primarily known through Akkadian historical sources. Despite its significant role in various conflicts and political shifts across millennia, its precise geographical location remains an enduring mystery to modern archaeology and scholarship.[1] The city's historical presence concludes with the collapse of the Old Babylonian Empire around 1595 BC, after which it vanishes from recorded history.

Echoes in Sumerian Literature

The city of Kazallu is vividly depicted in the Sumerian literary composition, "Lament for Sumer and Ur," which offers a poignant glimpse into its fate. This text describes Kazallu as a "city of teeming multitudes" plunged into confusion, with its patron deity Numushda departing and his consort Namrat lamenting its destruction. The lament paints a picture of desolation: empty riverbeds, barren fields, scorched orchards, and a landscape devoid of wildlife, underscoring the profound impact of its demise.[5][6] Such literary accounts provide invaluable, albeit often stylized, insights into the cultural and emotional significance of these urban centers.

Divine Patrons

Numushda and Namrat

Central to Kazallu's identity was its pantheon of patron deities. The primary patron god of Kazallu was Numushda, a deity whose specific functions are not extensively detailed but who was clearly revered as the city's protector. His consort was Namrat, often described as a "beautiful lady." The presence of these patron deities was integral to the city's spiritual and civic life, reflecting the Mesopotamian belief that each city was under the direct guardianship of specific gods.[1][2][3]

The Enigmatic Lugal-awak

Beyond Numushda and Namrat, there are indications that the god Lugal-awak was also associated with Kazallu, believed to have his cultic presence within the city.[4] The veneration of multiple deities, often with overlapping or complementary roles, was a common feature of Mesopotamian religious practice, where the well-being of the city was seen as directly tied to the favor of its divine protectors. The "Lament for Sumer and Ur" further underscores this connection by portraying Numushda's departure as a direct consequence of the city's downfall.

The Akkadian Period

Sargon's Devastation

During the Early Bronze Age, in the 24th or 23rd century BC, Kazallu found itself in direct conflict with Sargon of Akkad, the formidable founder of the Akkadian Empire. Historical accounts, though often embellished as literary compositions written a millennium after the events, describe Sargon's campaign against Kazallu under its king Kashtubila. The devastation inflicted upon the city was so profound that it was said "the birds could not find a place to perch away from the ground," a hyperbolic expression emphasizing the complete destruction.[7][8][9]

Revolts and Repression

Kazallu's turbulent relationship with the Akkadian Empire continued under Sargon's successors. Rimush, the second ruler of Akkad, faced a significant revolt from Kazallu. His inscriptions detail a brutal suppression: "Rimus, king of the world... Kazallu revolted. He conquered it and [wi]thin Kazallu (itself) struck down 12,052 men. He took 5,862 captives. Further, he captured Ashared, governor of Kazallu and destroyed its (Kazallu's) wall."[10][11] Later, under Naram-Sin, the fourth Akkadian ruler, Kazallu participated in a "great revolt" led by Kish, which Naram-Sin also crushed, specifically mentioning the defeat of "Puzur-Numusda, governor of Kazallu."

Administrative Mentions

Despite these conflicts, Kazallu also appears in more mundane administrative records. Several land grant inscriptions from the reign of Manishtushu, the third king of the Akkadian Empire, mention feasts occurring in Kazallu and individuals originating from the city.[12][13] These records suggest that even amidst periods of conflict, Kazallu maintained a degree of social and economic activity, indicating its continued importance within the broader Mesopotamian landscape.

The Ur III Period

Shifting Allegiances

Following the Akkadian period, Kazallu experienced a brief period under the control of Elam, specifically during the reign of Puzur-Inshushinak. However, this was short-lived, as Elam itself fell to the rising power of Ur. Ur-Nammu, the first ruler of the Ur III empire, famously declared his liberation of several cities, including Kazallu: "Then: Umma, Marda, Shubur, Kazallu, and their settlements, and whatsoever was oppressed by Anshan, verily, I established their freedom."[14][15] This marked Kazallu's integration into the vast Ur III imperial system.

Governors of Kazallu

Under the centralized administration of the Ur III empire, Kazallu was governed by a series of ensi (provincial governors). Several of these officials are known by name and the years of their appointments under various Ur III kings: Ititi (appointed in Shulgi's 28th year), Izariq (Shulgi's 31st year), Kallamu (Shulgi's 43rd year), Shu-Mama (Shulgi's 47th year), and Apillasha (appointed in Amar-Suen's 7th year, continuing until at least Shu-Sin's 5th year). Scholarly analysis suggests a possible period of co-regency between Shu-Mama and Apillasha.[16][17][18][19][20]

Imperial Correspondence

Towards the end of the Ur III empire, Kazallu continued to play a role in the political machinations of the time. A notable letter from Ibbi-Sin, the last ruler of Ur III, to Puzur-Numushda 1, whom he had appointed as governor of Kazallu, expresses concern. Ibbi-Sin complains that Girbubu, the governor of Girkal (a city often associated with Kazallu in geographical lists), was not adequately opposing Ishbi-Erra, the ambitious ruler of Isin.[21] Another letter to Ibbi-Sin highlights the dire situation: "I was charged with an expedition to Isin and Kazallu to buy grain. Grain is (now) reaching the rate of one gur (for) each (shekel) and the 20 talents of silver for buying grain have been spent. ... Now the Martus in their entirety have entered the interior of the country taking one by one all the great fortresses."[22] This correspondence underscores the economic and military pressures faced by the empire, with Kazallu caught in the midst of these struggles. Furthermore, the 12th year name of Ur III ruler Shulgi records a significant religious event: "Year Numushda of Kazallu was brought into his temple," indicating a period of stability and religious observance for the city.[23]>

The Isin-Larsa Period

A Century of Conflict

The period following the fall of the Ur III empire, known as the Isin-Larsa period (early 2nd millennium BC), was characterized by intense competition among various city-states vying for regional hegemony. Kazallu was a frequent participant in these conflicts, often clashing with the powerful city of Larsa. A year name of Sin-Iqisham, a ruler of Larsa, records a significant act of piety: "Year (Sin-iqiszam) made (statues) of / for Numuszda, Namrat and Lugal-apiak and brought them into the city of Kazallu," suggesting a period of Larsa's influence or control over Kazallu.[24]

Walls and Armies

The military struggles were frequent and destructive. The second year name of Warad-Sin, another Larsa ruler, explicitly states: "Year the city wall of Kazallu was destroyed and the army of Mutibal occupying Larsa was smitten by weapons." This indicates a direct assault on Kazallu's fortifications. Kudur-Mabuk, a prominent figure associated with Larsa, also reported successfully repelling the forces of Kazallu, further illustrating the ongoing hostilities.[25]

Broader Engagements

Kazallu's involvement extended beyond its rivalry with Larsa. Erra-imitti, a ruler of Isin, also claimed to have destroyed Kazallu, highlighting the city's vulnerability and its position as a strategic target. Furthermore, Rim-Anum, the ruler of Uruk, recorded a major victory in a year name: "Year in which Rim-Anum the king defeated the land of Emutbal, the troops of Esznunna, Isin and Kazallu who marched together against him to make booty ... which was not counted since ancient times ... and defeated them."[26] These accounts collectively paint a picture of Kazallu as a significant, albeit often embattled, player in the complex geopolitical landscape of the Isin-Larsa period.

Babylonian Period & Demise

Brief Independence

In the tumultuous centuries of early second-millennium Mesopotamia, Kazallu briefly emerged as an independent city-state, asserting its sovereignty amidst the shifting powers. This period of autonomy, however, was short-lived, as the rising power of Babylon began to consolidate its control over central Mesopotamia. The city's strategic location likely made it a target for the ambitious early Babylonian rulers.

The Final Conquests

The records of the early Babylonian kings document the ultimate subjugation of Kazallu. Sumu-El, an early ruler of Babylon, recorded two distinct victories over Kazallu. His 4th year name states: "Year Akusum was destroyed and the army of Kazallu was smitten by weapons." Later, his 15th year name reiterates a similar triumph: "Year Sumuel the king defeated with his weapons the army of Kazallu and his king." The definitive end for Kazallu came under Sumu-abum, another Babylonian ruler, whose 13th year name starkly declares: "Year Sumu-abum seized/destroyed Kazallu."[27] Following this final conquest and the subsequent fall of the First Babylonian Empire, the city of Kazallu disappears entirely from historical records, its fate sealed by the relentless march of imperial expansion.

The Geographical Enigma

An Undiscovered Site

Despite its prominent role in ancient Mesopotamian history, the precise location of Kazallu remains unknown, making it one of the many "lost cities" of the ancient Near East. This lack of definitive archaeological identification presents a significant challenge for historians and archaeologists seeking to fully understand its strategic importance and cultural context. Various ancient texts offer clues, but these often lead to multiple interpretations and ongoing scholarly debate.

Historical Clues and Modern Hypotheses

Several ancient sources provide geographical indicators, albeit often vague. A tablet from the reign of Gudea of Lagash suggests Kazallu was situated somewhere to the west of Mesopotamia, within the land of Martu (the Amorite lands).[28] A letter to Ibbi-Sin further supports this, noting that the Martu hindered travel between Ur and Kazallu.[29] Modern scholars have proposed several hypotheses for its location:

  • Some believe it was approximately 15 km from the city of Babylon, just west of the Euphrates River.
  • Texts from Drehem place it to the east of the unlocated city of Girtab.[30]
  • Old Babylonian records suggest it was in the vicinity of Marad (modern Tell as-Sadoum).[31]
  • Other researchers have suggested locations "in the area east or southeast of Dilbat"[32] or "likely modern Azragiya on the Euphrates located 4 kms northwest of Fallujah."[33]

The diversity of these proposals underscores the difficulty in pinpointing Kazallu's exact site, leaving its physical remains awaiting discovery.

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References

References

  1.  Jonathan L. Ready, "Zeus, Ancient Near Eastern Notions of Divine Incomparability, and Similes in the Homeric Epics", Classical Antiquity, vol. 31, no. 1, University of California Press, pp. 56–91, 2012
  2.  Helle, Sophus, "The Temple Hymns", in Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World's First Author, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 53-94, 2023
  3.  Stol, M., "An Old Babylonian Contract", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 70, no. 1, pp. 55–56, 1976
  4.  Mander, P., "A Brief Survey on the Expression of Emotions in Cuneiform Literatures", Ming Qing Yanjiu, 12(1), pp. 95-130, 2003
  5.  The lament for Sumer and Urim: translation - ETSCL
  6.  Howard, Sethanne, "En Hedu’anna", Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 103, no. 2, Washington Academy of Sciences, pp. 21–34, 2017
  7.  Foster, Benjamin R., "The Sargonic Victory Stele from Telloh", Iraq, vol. 47, 1985, pp. 15–30, 1885
  8.  Wright, Jacob L., "Commensal Politics in Ancient Western Asia: The Background to Nehemiah's Feasting (continued, Part II)", vol. 122, no. 3, pp. 333-352, 2010
  9.  Sharlach, Tonia. "Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi" Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-68, 2022
  10.  Yildiz, Fatma, "A Tablet of Codex Ur-Nammu from Sippar", Orientalia, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 87–97, 1981
  11.  Rients de Boer, "Marad in the Early Old Babylonian Period: Its Kings, Chronology, and Isin's Influence", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 65, The American Schools of Oriental Research, pp. 73–90, 2013
  12.  Kutscher, Raphael, "ApillaÅ¡a, Governor of Kazallu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 22, no. 3/4, American Schools of Oriental Research, pp. 63–65, 1968
  13.  Michalowski, Piotr, "Ibbi-Sin to Puzur-NumuÅ¡da 1 (IbPu1, 3.1.20, RCU 22)". The Correspondence of the Kings of Ur: An Epistolary History of an Ancient Mesopotamian Kingdom, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 463-482, 2021
  14.  Jacobsen, Thorkild, "The Reign of IbbÄ«-Suen", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 36–47, 1953
  15.  Year Name 12 of Shulgi - CDLI
  16.  Richardson, Seth, "Early Mesopotamia: the presumptive state", in Past & Present, no. 215, pp. 3–49, 2012
  17.  Fiette, Baptiste, "‘King’ Kudur-Mabuk: A Study on the Identity of a Mesopotamian Ruler Without a Crown", Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 50, no. 2, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG), pp. 275–94, 2020
  18.  Rositani, Annunziata, "Some RÄ«m-Anum Texts from the BÄ«t asÄ«rÄ« Kept at the British Museum", Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, vol. 82, no. 1/4, Fabrizio Serra Editore, Sapienza - Universita di Roma, pp. 97–121, 2009
  19.  Rients de Boer, "Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-Abum and Sumu-La-El", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 70, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2018, pp. 53–86, 2018
  20.  Howorth, Henry H., "The Later Rulers of Shirpurla or Lagash (Continued)", The English Historical Review, Vol. 17, No. 66, pp. 209-234, Apr. 1902
  21.  Owen, David I., "Transliterations, Translations, and Brief Comments", The Nesbit Tablets, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 13-110, 2021
  22.  Yuhong, W, "Kings of Kazallu and Marad in the early OB Period", XXXIVème Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, pp. 221-227, 1998
  23.  Finkelstein, J. J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–7, 1955
  24.  Frayne, Douglas R., "The Zagros campaigns of the Ur III kings", Journal of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 3, pp. 33-56, 2008
A full list of references for this article are available at the Kazallu Wikipedia page

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