What is the primary meaning and geographical association of the title King of Kings?

The title King of Kings was an imperial title primarily used by monarchs in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. It is most commonly associated with Iran (historically Persia), particularly during the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires, and is generally considered equivalent to the title of Emperor.

Which ancient Mesopotamian king first introduced the title King of Kings?

The title King of Kings was first introduced in ancient Mesopotamia by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I, who reigned from 1233 to 1197 BC. He used the Akkadian version of the title, šar šarrāni.

What was the literal meaning of the title King of Kings (šar šarrāni) in its original Assyrian context?

In its original Akkadian context, šar šarrāni literally meant 'king of kings'. This title signified that the Assyrian rulers had installed themselves as kings over an existing system of kingship within city-states, effectively becoming rulers over other rulers.

Which later Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian rulers also used the title King of Kings?

Following Tukulti-Ninurta I, the title was occasionally used by monarchs of Assyria and Babylon. Later Assyrian rulers who used the title included Esarhaddon (reigned 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (reigned 669–627 BC). The Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus (reigned 556–539 BC) also used the title.

How did the title King of Kings evolve in the Achaemenid Empire?

In the Achaemenid Empire, the title was rendered as Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām in Old Persian. It was a prominent title used by all Achaemenid kings, such as Darius I and Xerxes I, who used it in their full titulature to signify their supreme rule over a vast, multi-ethnic empire.

What is the significance of the Median form of the Achaemenid King of Kings title?

The Achaemenid Persian variant of the title, Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām, is Median in form. This suggests that the Achaemenids may have adopted the title from the Medes rather than directly from the Mesopotamians, indicating a cultural influence from the earlier Median Empire.

Who was the first post-Achaemenid Iranian king to adopt the title King of Kings?

Mithridates I of Parthia, who reigned from 171 to 132 BC, was the first post-Achaemenid Iranian king to use the title King of Kings. However, his usage was infrequent, and the title became consistently used starting with his nephew, Mithridates II.

How did the Sasanian Empire utilize the King of Kings title?

The Sasanians used the title Shahanshah, a Middle Persian form of King of Kings. Ardashir I introduced the variant 'Shahanshah of the Iranians,' and his successor Shapur I expanded it to 'Shahanshah of the Iranians and non-Iranians,' a title that appeared on the coinage of subsequent Sasanian kings.

When did the title King of Kings last appear in the Sasanian Empire?

The last reigning Shahanshah of the Sasanian Empire was Yazdegerd III, whose reign ended with the Islamic conquest of Persia in 651 AD.

How was the title King of Kings revived in Iran after the Sasanian Empire?

The title Shahanshah was revived in Iran by the Buyid Emir Panāh Khusraw, known as 'Adud al-Dawla, in 978 AD, over three centuries after the fall of the Sasanian Empire. Subsequent Buyid rulers who held full control over the dynasty's territories also used the title.

What was the significance of the title King of Kings in the Seleucid Empire?

While Alexander the Great did not use Persian titles, the Seleucid rulers increasingly adopted Persian political customs. The title 'Great King' was common, and the title 'King of Kings' saw a revival, notably used by the usurper Timarchus. It demonstrated a recognition of suzerainty, especially as the Seleucid Empire's territory diminished.

Which Hellenic rulers outside the Seleucid Empire also used the King of Kings title?

Some non-Seleucid rulers adopted the title King of Kings, particularly in the Kingdom of Pontus. Pharnaces II used it on inscriptions and coins, and Mithridates VI Eupator also used it in an inscription.

How was the title King of Kings used in ancient Armenia?

Tigranes the Great of Armenia assumed the title King of Kings after conquering Syria in 83 BC, ruling a powerful empire. Later, Armenian kings of the Bagratuni dynasty, from the 10th century onwards, revived the title, rendering it as the Persian Shahanshah.

Who revived the title King of Kings in Georgia and what was the Georgian term?

The title King of Kings was revived in the Kingdom of Georgia by King David IV, who reigned from 1089 to 1125 AD. He used the Georgian term mepet mepe, and subsequent Georgian monarchs, like Tamar the Great, also adopted it to signify their rule over various principalities and tributaries.

What title did Odaenathus of Palmyra adopt after his campaign against the Sasanian Empire?

After a successful campaign against Shapur I in 262 AD, Odaenathus, the ruler of Palmyra, founded the Palmyrene kingdom and adopted the title Mlk Mlk dy Mdnh, meaning 'King of Kings and Corrector of the East,' despite being a Roman vassal.

How was the title King of Kings used in the Ethiopian Empire?

The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire used the title Nəgusä Nägäst, which literally translates to 'King of Kings.' This title was officially translated as 'Emperor' and was used by Ethiopian monarchs from the Aksumite Kingdom onwards, including the emperors of the Ethiopian Empire from 1270 to 1974.

What Sanskrit terms were used for King of Kings in ancient India?

In ancient India, Sanskrit terms such as Rājādhirāja and Mahārājadhirāja were used to convey the title of King of Kings. These terms appeared in texts like the Aitareya Aranyaka and were adopted by various Indian dynasties, including the Gupta, Pala, and Chola empires.

Which Indian dynasties used the title Mahārājadhirāja?

Several Indian dynasties used the imperial title Mahārājadhirāja, which translates to 'Great King of Kings.' These included the monarchs of the Gupta Empire, the Bhauma-Kara dynasty, the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, the Pallava dynasty, the Pala Empire, the Salasthamba dynasty, and the rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire.

What is the feminine equivalent of King of Kings, and how was it used?

The feminine equivalent of King of Kings is 'Queen of Queens.' However, some female monarchs adopted the masculine title 'King of Kings' or used variations like 'Queen of Kings.' For instance, Tamar of Georgia used both 'King of Kings' (mepeta-mepe) and 'Queen of Queens' (dedopalta-dedopali).

Which female rulers used the title King of Kings or its equivalent?

Female rulers who used titles equivalent to King of Kings include Ballamahadevi of the Alupa dynasty and the queens regnant of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty, who used the masculine title *maharajadhiraja*. Tamar of Georgia used *mepeta-mepe* ('King of Kings'). In Iran, queens like Musa, Boran, and Azarmidokht held the rank equivalent to *shahanshah*. Gurju Khatun and Hürrem Sultan were referred to as 'Queen of Queens' (*malikat al-malikāt*).

How is the title King of Kings used in Judaism?

In Judaism, the phrase Melech Malchei HaMelachim, meaning 'the King of Kings of Kings,' is used as a name for God. This double superlative elevates the title beyond earthly rulers, signifying God's supreme authority.

In Christianity, to whom is the title King of Kings applied?

In Christianity, the title King of Kings is applied to Jesus Christ. It appears in the New Testament, specifically in the First Epistle to Timothy and twice in the Book of Revelation, signifying his ultimate divine authority over all earthly rulers.

What was the Byzantine interpretation of the King of Kings title?

Byzantine Emperors used the title Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn, which translates to 'King of Kings, ruling over those who rule.' In the Byzantine context, Basileus had evolved to mean 'Emperor,' so this title signified 'Emperor of Emperors,' equating them with other supreme rulers like the Sasanian Shahanshahs.

How is the title King of Kings viewed in Islam?

In Islam, the title King of Kings (or its Persian variant Shahanshah) is generally condemned, particularly in Sunni hadith. It is considered an arrogant and blasphemous title, as it implies a worldly ruler claiming a status that belongs only to God, who is the ultimate King of Kings.

What is the Mandaean reference to King of Kings?

In Mandaeism, the phrase malka d-kulhun malkia, meaning 'King of [All] Kings,' is used in some prayers to refer to Hayyi Rabbi (God), signifying His supreme dominion.

When was the title Shahanshah last used by Iranian monarchs?

The title Shahanshah was used by the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran, with Reza Shah Pahlavi and his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi both holding the title. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi officially assumed it in 1967, and it ceased to be used after the Iranian Revolution in 1979.

Who was the last reigning monarch to use the title Shahanshah?

The last reigning monarch to use the title Shahanshah was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran, who was overthrown in 1979.

In what year was Muammar Gaddafi bestowed the title 'King of Kings'?

In 2008, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was bestowed the title 'King of Kings' by a gathering of over 200 African tribal kings and chiefs in Benghazi.

What was the original context for the title 'King of Kings' in ancient India?

In ancient India, Sanskrit terms like Rājādhirāja and Mahārājadhirāja were used for the title 'King of Kings.' These titles signified a ruler's supreme authority over other kings and were adopted by various empires to denote their imperial status.

Which Hellenic ruler, besides the Seleucids, used the title King of Kings?

While Seleucid rulers like Timarchus used the title, rulers in Pontus, such as Pharnaces II and Mithridates VI Eupator, also adopted the title King of Kings.

What was the significance of the title 'King of Kings' for Tigranes the Great of Armenia?

Tigranes the Great of Armenia assumed the title King of Kings after conquering Syria in 83 BC, signifying his establishment of a powerful, expansive empire that made him the dominant force in the Middle East at that time.

How did the title King of Kings relate to the concept of Emperor?

The title King of Kings is commonly seen as equivalent to Emperor. Both titles outrank that of a regular king and signify supreme rule, often adopted by rulers who considered themselves equals to or successors of major imperial powers like the Roman or Sasanian Empires.

What was the specific title used by the Ethiopian Emperors, and how did it translate?

The rulers of the Ethiopian Empire used the title Nəgusä Nägäst, which literally translates to 'King of Kings.' This title was officially translated into English as 'Emperor'.

Which female ruler of Georgia used both 'King of Kings' and 'Queen of Queens' titles?

Tamar of Georgia, a prominent monarch of the Kingdom of Georgia, assumed both the title of 'King of Kings' (mepeta-mepe) and 'Queen of Queens' (dedopalta-dedopali) during her reign.

What was the criticism of the 'King of Kings' title within the Islamic world?

Within the Islamic world, the title 'King of Kings' (Shahanshah) was criticized and deemed obnoxious and blasphemous. This opposition stemmed from the early Islamic emphasis on God's sole kingship and the perception that such a title implied arrogance and usurpation of divine status.

What is the significance of the title 'King of Kings' in the Book of Revelation?

In the Book of Revelation, Jesus Christ is referred to as 'King of Kings and Lord of Lords,' signifying his supreme divine authority and sovereignty over all earthly powers and rulers.

How did the title King of Kings evolve in the context of the Roman and Byzantine Empires?

The Sasanian 'Shahanshahs' were seen by Roman and Byzantine emperors as their equals. The Byzantine emperors themselves used titles like 'Basileus Basileōn' ('King of Kings'), which, given that 'Basileus' meant 'Emperor' in Byzantine Greek, effectively translated to 'Emperor of Emperors'.

What was the Achaemenid administrative system that contributed to the use of the King of Kings title?

The Achaemenid Empire utilized a satrapal administration, which allowed for a degree of autonomy among its diverse regions and vassal rulers. The title 'King of Kings' reflected the supreme authority of the Achaemenid monarch over these various subordinate kings and satraps.

What was the meaning of the title 'King of Kings' for the rulers of Urartu?

For rulers of Urartu, such as Sarduri I, the title 'King of Kings' signified their supreme rule, with inscriptions stating they were 'king of kings and the king who received the tribute of all the kings.' This demonstrated their dominance over other regional rulers.

How did the Buyid dynasty revive Sasanian traditions related to the King of Kings title?

The Buyid dynasty, of Iranian origin, consciously revived old symbols and practices of the Sasanian Empire. This included the adoption of the title 'Shahanshah' by rulers like 'Adud al-Dawla, symbolizing a connection to Persia's pre-Islamic imperial past.

What was the specific title used by Caesarion in the Donations of Alexandria?

In the context of the Donations of Alexandria, Caesarion, the son of Cleopatra VII, was proclaimed 'King of Kings'.

What was the significance of the title 'King of Kings' for Nader Shah of Persia?

Nader Shah, founder of the Afsharid Dynasty, assumed the title 'Shahanshah' in 1739 to assert his superiority over Muhammad Shah of the Mughal Empire in India, highlighting his claim to supreme authority.

What was the justification for the Palmyrene kingdom's use of the 'King of Kings' title?

The Palmyrene kingdom, under rulers like Odaenathus, likely justified its use of the 'King of Kings' title by proclaiming itself the legitimate successor state to the Hellenic Seleucid Empire, which had previously controlled similar territories.

What was the 'bizarre ceremony' in Benghazi involving Muammar Gaddafi and the title 'King of Kings'?

In 2008, in Benghazi, Libya, over 200 African tribal kings and chiefs endorsed Muammar Gaddafi's use of the title 'King of Kings, sultans, princes, sheikhs and mayors of Africa' in what was later described as a 'bizarre ceremony' by international media.

What does the title 'Maharajadhiraja' mean and where was it used?

Maharajadhiraja is a Sanskrit term that translates to 'Great King of Kings.' It was used as an imperial title by various rulers in ancient India, including those of the Gupta Empire, the Pala Empire, and the Vijayanagar Empire.

How did the title 'King of Kings' reflect the political structure of the Achaemenid Empire?

The Achaemenid Empire's vastness and its system of semi-autonomous satrapies and vassal kings meant that the 'King of Kings' title accurately reflected the Persian monarch's position as the supreme ruler over numerous subordinate rulers.

What was the religious significance of 'King of Kings' in Christianity?

In Christianity, 'King of Kings' is a title applied to Jesus Christ, signifying his ultimate divine authority and sovereignty over all earthly kings and powers, as stated in the New Testament.

What is the meaning of the Georgian title 'mepet mepe'?

The Georgian title 'mepet mepe' directly translates to 'King of Kings' and was used by Georgian monarchs, such as David IV and Tamar the Great, to denote their supreme rule over the kingdom and its tributaries.

What was the specific criticism of the title 'Shahanshah' by later Muslims?

Later Muslims criticized the title 'Shahanshah,' associating it with the Zoroastrian faith and deeming it 'impious.' This criticism stemmed from the Islamic concept of God's singular kingship and the perceived arrogance of a mortal ruler claiming such a grand title.

Which female ruler of the Ethiopian Empire held the title 'Queen of Kings'?

Empress Zewditu of the Ethiopian Empire held the title Nəgəstä Nägäst ('Queen of Kings'), which was distinct from the male emperor's title Nəgusä Nägäst ('King of Kings').

What was the meaning of the Byzantine title 'Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn'?

The Byzantine title 'Basileus Basileōn, Basileuōn Basileuontōn' translates to 'King of Kings, ruling over those who rule.' Given that 'Basileus' meant 'Emperor' in Byzantine Greek, it signified 'Emperor of Emperors,' indicating supreme authority over other rulers.

King Of Kings Wiki: Imperial Ascendancy: The Title 'King of Kings'

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Title Overview

Defining 'King of Kings'

The title King of Kings (Akkadian: šar šarrāni; Hebrew: Melech Malchei HaMelachim; Old Persian: Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām) denotes an imperial title primarily utilized by monarchs in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. It signifies a sovereign whose authority extends over other rulers, effectively ranking higher than a standard king and often considered equivalent to an Emperor.

Geographical and Temporal Scope

Historically associated with empires such as the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires of Persia, the title's usage spans millennia. It was adopted by rulers in various kingdoms and empires, including Hellenic states, India, Armenia, Georgia, and Ethiopia, reflecting its prestige and the hierarchical nature of ancient political structures.

Equivalence and Hierarchy

The title is often equated with 'Emperor', signifying a supreme ruler who commands the allegiance of subordinate kings. This hierarchical structure was common in ancient and medieval political systems, where titles reflected varying degrees of power and dominion over diverse territories and peoples.

Historical Usage

Ancient Mesopotamia

The title's origins trace back to the Middle Assyrian Empire, introduced by King Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. 1233–1197 BC). It signified a king ruling over other kings, reflecting the empire's expansionist policies. Later Assyrian and Babylonian rulers, including Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, also employed this title. The Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus also used the title.

Ancient India

In Ancient India, Sanskrit terms like Rājādhirāja and Mahārājādhirāja conveyed the meaning of 'King of Kings'. Monarchs of the Gupta Empire, Bhauma-Kara dynasty, Gurjara-Pratihara, Pallava, Pala, and Vijayanagar dynasties utilized these titles, signifying their imperial status and dominion over various principalities.

Persia: Achaemenid to Sasanian

The Achaemenid Empire prominently used the title Xšāyaθiya Xšāyaθiyānām, signifying their vast dominion. This tradition continued through the Parthian and Sasanian Empires, with rulers like Mithridates I of Parthia and Ardashir I of the Sasanian dynasty adopting and adapting the title to reflect their imperial authority over both Iranian and non-Iranian territories.

Armenia and Georgia

Armenian kings, notably Tigranes the Great, adopted the title 'King of Kings' following conquests. Later, the Bagratuni dynasty revived the Persian Shahanshah title. Similarly, Georgian monarchs like David IV and Tamar the Great used the title mepet mepe ('King of Kings') to denote their suzerainty over various principalities.

Palmyra and Hellenistic Influence

The ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, adopted the title 'King of Kings and Corrector of the East' after campaigns against the Sasanian Empire. His son, Herodianus, also held the title. Later, Seleucid rulers, influenced by Persian traditions, also used titles like 'Great King' and, occasionally, 'King of Kings', demonstrating the title's cross-cultural adoption.

Feminine Titles

Queen of Kings

While the direct feminine equivalent is 'Queen of Queens', some female monarchs assumed the masculine title 'King of Kings' or variations thereof. Examples include Ballamahadevi of the Alupa dynasty and the queens of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty in India, who used maharajadhiraja. Queen Tamar of Georgia held both 'King of Kings' and 'Queen of Queens' titles.

Variations and Consorts

In Iran, the title bānbishnān bānbishn ('Queen of Queens') mirrored the male shāhanshāh. Female monarchs like Musa, Boran, and Azarmidokht held ranks equivalent to shāhanshāh. In the Sultanate of Rum and the Ottoman Empire, consorts like Gurju Khatun and Hürrem Sultan were addressed as malikat al-malikāt ('Queen of Queens').

Religious Significance

Judaism

In Judaism, the phrase Melech Malchei HaMelachim ('the King of Kings of Kings') is used as a divine name for God, signifying His ultimate sovereignty above all earthly rulers. This superlative usage emphasizes God's supreme authority.

Christianity

The New Testament refers to Jesus Christ as 'King of Kings' and 'Lord of Lords' (1 Timothy 6:15, Revelation 17:14, 19:11-16). This title underscores His divine authority and ultimate dominion over all powers, both earthly and spiritual.

Islam

Within Islam, the title 'King of Kings' (or Shāhanshāh) is generally discouraged, particularly in Hadith literature (e.g., Sahih al-Bukhari), where it is considered the most detestable name. This stems from the concept of God's sole sovereignty, making any human claim to such a title potentially blasphemous.

Mandaeism

In Mandaeism, the phrase malka d-kulhun malkia ('King of [All] Kings') is used in prayers to refer to Hayyi Rabbi (God), highlighting His supreme status within their cosmology.

Modern Usage

Iran: Pahlavi Dynasty

The title Shahanshah was revived and prominently used by the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran. Reza Shah Pahlavi and his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi utilized the title, symbolizing a connection to ancient Persian imperial traditions. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's coronation as Shahanshah in 1967 marked a significant moment in this revival.

Libya: Gaddafi

In 2008, Muammar Gaddafi was controversially bestowed the title 'King of Kings' by a gathering of African tribal leaders. This event, aimed at promoting African unity, was met with international skepticism and highlighted the symbolic power still associated with such ancient titles.

References

Source Material

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References

Atikal & Parthasarathy (tr.) 2004, p. 342.

Mookerji 1914, p. 71.

Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 49

Andrade 2013, p. 333.

Ando 2012, p. 210.

The Court of Fath 'Ali Shah at the Nowrooz Salaam Ceremony.

A full list of references for this article are available at the King of Kings Wikipedia page

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Academic Integrity and Limitations

This document was generated by an AI model based on publicly available data from Wikipedia. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, it is intended for educational and informational purposes only. It does not constitute historical, political, or religious advice.

Accuracy Disclaimer: The content reflects the information available at the time of generation and may not encompass all nuances or recent scholarship. Users are encouraged to consult primary sources and academic literature for comprehensive understanding.

No Endorsement: The inclusion of specific titles or historical figures does not imply endorsement or validation of their actions or regimes.

Imperial Ascendancy

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Title Overview ℹ️

👑 Defining 'King of Kings'

🌍 Geographical and Temporal Scope

⚖️ Equivalence and Hierarchy

Historical Usage 📜

🏛️ Ancient Mesopotamia

🇮🇳 Ancient India

🇮🇷 Persia: Achaemenid to Sasanian

🇦🇲 Armenia and Georgia

🏛️ Palmyra and Hellenistic Influence

Feminine Titles ♀️

👑 Queen of Kings

👑 Variations and Consorts

Religious Significance ⛪

✡️ Judaism

✝️ Christianity

☪️ Islam

Mandaeanism Mandaeism

Modern Usage 🏛️

🇮🇷 Iran: Pahlavi Dynasty

🇱🇾 Libya: Gaddafi

References 🔗

📝 Source Material

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📜 Academic Integrity and Limitations

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Title Overview

Defining 'King of Kings'

Geographical and Temporal Scope

Equivalence and Hierarchy

Historical Usage

Ancient Mesopotamia

Ancient India

Persia: Achaemenid to Sasanian

Armenia and Georgia

Palmyra and Hellenistic Influence

Feminine Titles

Queen of Kings

Variations and Consorts

Religious Significance

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

Mandaeism

Modern Usage

Iran: Pahlavi Dynasty

Libya: Gaddafi

References

Source Material

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Academic Integrity and Limitations