Albania's Italian Interlude
A scholarly examination of Albania's complex political status and societal transformation under Italian Fascist control during World War II.
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Introduction
A Union of Unequals
The Kingdom of Albania existed in a personal union with the Kingdom of Italy from the Italian invasion in April 1939 until the German occupation in September 1943. During this period, Albania effectively ceased to function as an independent nation, becoming an autonomous component of the Italian Empire. This arrangement is often referred to as Italian Albania or, in some contexts, "Greater Albania," reflecting the expansionist ambitions of Fascist Italy.
Fascist Imperial Ambitions
Under this union, Albania was directly controlled by Fascist Italy. The Italian King, Victor Emmanuel III, also held the title of King of Albania, with Italian governors representing him in Tirana. A core objective of Italian officials was to integrate Albania into a "Greater Italy" through a process of assimilation, aiming to transform Albanians into Italians and to colonize the territory with Italian settlers from the peninsula, thereby gradually converting it into Italian land.
Historical Justifications
Italy's claims to Albania were rooted in historical and ethnic narratives. The Treaty of London during World War I had previously promised territories in Albania to Italy as an incentive for its participation against the Central Powers. Italian Fascists further asserted an ethnic link between Albanians and Italians, citing prehistoric populations and the significant historical influence of the Roman and Venetian empires over Albania as justification for its possession. This narrative also extended to supporting Albanian irredentism, particularly concerning Albanian-populated Kosovo in Yugoslavia and the Chameria region of Epirus in Greece, aiming to unite all Albanians under one state controlled by Italy.
Pre-Invasion Past
Early Italian Presence
Italy's engagement with Albania predates its direct invasion. In December 1914, during World War I, the Kingdom of Italy occupied the Albanian port of Vlorรซ. By autumn 1916, this occupation expanded to southern Albania, with Italian forces even recruiting Albanian irregulars. With Allied permission, Italy occupied Northern Epirus in August 1916, compelling the Greek Army to withdraw. In June 1917, Italy declared central and southern Albania an Italian protectorate, while Northern Albania was assigned to Serbia and Montenegro. Following the expulsion of the Austro-Hungarian Army by French and Italian forces in October 1918, Italy eventually withdrew its military from Albania in September 1920 due to internal crises, international pressure, and a rebellion in Vlorรซ. However, Italy retained the island of Saseno and maintained a strategic interest in Albania.
Economic and Political Domination
Throughout the 1920s, the Italian Fascist regime systematically increased its political and economic influence over Albania, particularly during King Zog's reign. This period saw Albania become heavily dependent on Italy, especially after the Treaties of Tirana in 1926 and 1927 solidified Italian influence. By 1931, Albania's economy was sustained by multiple financial loans from Italy. Benito Mussolini's regime had long harbored plans for Albania's annexation.
Mussolini's Demands
In August 1933, Mussolini presented King Zog with stringent demands for Italy's continued support. These included requirements for all senior Albanian government appointees to have an "Italian education," the placement of Italian experts in all Albanian government ministries, Italian control over Albania's military and fortifications, the replacement of British gendarmerie trainers with Italian officers, and the annulment of all existing commercial treaties with other nations, with future agreements requiring Italian approval. Furthermore, Albania was compelled to sign a commercial convention designating Italy as its "most favored country" in trade. When Albania defaulted on a loan payment in 1934, Italian warships appeared off the coast in an act of intimidation, though British opposition eventually led Italy to back down, claiming the naval exercise was merely a "friendly visit."
Ciano's Expansionist Vision
Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano's diaries reveal the escalating Italian ambitions. In August 1937, he articulated the need to establish "stable centres of Italian influence" in Albania, anticipating future opportunities for seizure and asserting that Italy would not withdraw as it had in 1920. He explicitly linked the absorption of ethnic Albanians in southern Italy to the justification for annexing Albania. By March 1938, inspired by Germany's Anschluss with Austria, Ciano wrote of moving towards "more complete domination" of Albania, emphasizing the gradual reinforcement of Italy's protectorate over the country.
Invasion & Regime
The Invasion of 1939
Despite a long-standing alliance, Italian troops invaded Albania on April 7, 1939, just five months before the outbreak of World War II. The Albanian armed forces offered limited resistance, and the country was swiftly occupied. King Zog I fled to Greece on April 9, 1939. This invasion, driven by Benito Mussolini's desire to enhance Italy's prestige, respond to German territorial gains, and secure a strategic base for future military operations against Yugoslavia and Greece, transformed Albania into an Italian protectorate, subservient to Italian interests.
A Puppet Monarchy
Victor Emmanuel III, already King of Italy, was proclaimed King of Albania, establishing a personal union between the two nations. He was represented in Tirana by an Italian viceroy. A customs union was immediately implemented, removing most trade restrictions between Albania and Italy, and Rome assumed control over Albania's foreign policy. Although officially under Italian rule, Albanians were permitted to control some regional affairs and were encouraged to open Albanian language schools, which had been suppressed under the previous Yugoslav government. Albanian citizenship was granted to inhabitants, and they were allowed to fly the Albanian flag.
Fascist Integration
The Italian regime systematically fascisticized Albania. The Albanian armed forces were integrated into the Italian military, and Italian advisors were embedded at all levels of the Albanian administration. An Albanian Fascist Party, modeled after its Italian counterpart, was established, with its members swearing an oath of obedience to Mussolini. Italian citizens began to settle in Albania as colonists, acquiring land with the explicit aim of gradually transforming the territory into Italian soil. This "Italianization" of Albania was a central tenet of Mussolini's expansionist plans. While Victor Emmanuel reigned as king, Shefqet Vรซrlaci served as Prime Minister, managing the day-to-day operations of the protectorate until he was replaced by Mustafa Merlika-Kruja on December 3, 1941. Italy also asserted direct control over Albania's natural resources, with all petroleum resources managed by Agip, Italy's state petroleum company.
Ideological Justifications
Fascist Italy's claims were bolstered by historical and racial arguments. Albania's historical inclusion within the Roman Empire, even before the Roman annexation of northern Italy, and the later influence of Italian powers like the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Venice over coastal areas such as Durazzo, were cited as justifications. Italian Fascist ideologues propagated studies asserting the racial affinity between Albanians and Italians, contrasting them with Slavic Yugoslavs, to legitimize Italy's right to possess Albania. Furthermore, Italy continued to champion Albanian irredentism, particularly regarding Kosovo in Yugoslavia and the Chameria region in Greece, as a means to achieve a "Greater Albania" under Italian hegemony. Count Ciano notably viewed Albanian claims to Kosovo as strategically valuable for Italy's objectives, seeing it as a tool to destabilize Yugoslavia and maintain an irredentist problem in the Balkans.
Albania in Conflict
Strategic Balkan Beachhead
From a strategic perspective, Italy's control over Albania provided a crucial foothold in the Balkans. It not only solidified Italian dominance over the Strait of Otranto and the entrance to the Adriatic Sea but also served as a potential launchpad for invasions into Yugoslavia or Greece. This strategic advantage was integral to Mussolini's broader Fascist objective of establishing Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"), aiming for Italian territorial control over much of the Mediterranean coastline.
War Declaration and Disloyalty
On June 16, 1940, shortly after Italy declared war on Britain and France, the Corporative Council of the Albanian Fascist Party issued a directive stating that "The Kingdom of Albania considers itself at war with all nations against which Italy is at war โ at present or in the future." However, during the Greco-Italian War in October 1940, when Albania served as a staging area for Mussolini's unsuccessful invasion of Greece, the Albanian army, under Colonel (later General) Prenk Pervizi, largely abandoned the Italians in combat. This perceived betrayal led to the removal of the Albanian army from the front and the isolation of Colonel Pervizi and his staff in the northern mountains of Puka and Shkodra, marking an early act of revolt against the Italian occupation.
Shifting Borders
Following the Greek counter-attack, a significant portion of Albania, including Gjirokastรซr and Korรงรซ, fell into Greek hands. However, with the overwhelming German invasion of Greece in April 1941, Greece capitulated, and all of Albania returned to Italian control. Italian influence also extended to most of Greece, which was jointly occupied by Italy, Germany, and Bulgaria. Italian plans to annex Chameria to Albania were ultimately shelved due to the region's predominantly Greek population and strong opposition from both the local Greeks and the Germans, who also opposed any territorial reduction of the Hellenic state. After the fall of Yugoslavia and Greece, the Italian government negotiated new Balkan borders with Germany, Bulgaria, and the Independent State of Croatia. Mussolini initially advocated for Montenegro's annexation into Albania and an eastward expansion of Albania's border, though not as far as the Vardar river. After further negotiations and adjustments, Albania's new borders were officially declared by royal decree on June 7, 1941. The Italian capitulation in September 1943 led to the German occupation of Albania until the end of the war.
Persecution & Atrocities
The Fate of Jews
Prior to World War II, approximately 200 Albanian Jews and 400 Jewish refugees resided in Albania proper. While Albanian Jews generally received protection, they faced certain restrictions. Foreign Jews, however, were often interned in concentration camps. The Jewish population in Kosovo experienced a far more dire fate, as Italian authorities frequently handed them over to the Germans, leading to their murder or transfer to camps in Albania. In some instances, foreign Jews were taken to Albanian cities where local populations offered them protection.
Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo
Kosovar Albanians, seeking the realization of a "Greater Albania," collaborated with the Axis powers. This alliance was perceived as a preferable alternative to the repressive policies enforced by Serbian politicians during the interwar period. In June 1942, Prime Minister Mustafa Kruja explicitly stated that Serbs would be sent to concentration camps or executed. Between 70,000 and 100,000 Kosovar Serbs were subsequently transferred to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica or expelled to Serbia proper, as part of a systematic effort to Albanize the province. This expulsion proved economically disruptive, as Serbs had played vital roles in running businesses, mills, tanneries, public utilities, and agricultural production.
Violence and Destruction
During the Italian occupation, the population, particularly Serbs and Montenegrins in Kosovo, was subjected to forced labor, torture, and the destruction of private property. Cultural and historical buildings, as well as graveyards, were also damaged or destroyed. According to Serbian sources, the Vulnetari (Albanian volunteer militia) and other paramilitary groups were responsible for the murder of up to 10,000 Serbs and Montenegrins in Kosovo.
Economy
Economic Integration with Italy
Upon the Italian occupation and the establishment of the new government, the economies of Albania and Italy were formally linked through a customs union. This union largely eliminated trade restrictions between the two entities, and the Italian tariff system was extended to Albania. To offset the anticipated economic losses in Albania resulting from these tariff policy changes, the Italian government committed to providing Albania with 15 million Albanian leks annually as compensation. Italian customs laws were applied in Albania, and only Italy held the authority to conclude trade treaties with third parties.
Italian Dominance and Resource Exploitation
Italian capital was strategically positioned to dominate the Albanian economy. This arrangement allowed Italian companies to secure monopolies in the exploitation of Albania's natural resources. For instance, all petroleum resources in Albania were managed directly by Agip, Italy's state petroleum company. This economic structure ensured that Albania's resources primarily served Italian interests.
Industrial Growth and Agricultural Stagnation
Despite the overarching Italian control, Albania experienced a notable increase in industrial enterprises during this period. The number of companies and industrial ventures surged from just 71 in 1922 to 244 in 1938, and further to 430 by 1944. The concentration of workers in industrial production also doubled between 1928 and 1938. Albania maintained trade relations with 21 countries, with Italy being its primary partner, followed by Yugoslavia, France, Germany, and Greece. However, Albania's overall economic development remained significantly behind other European nations. Agriculture, which employed over 87% of the workforce, constituted the main sector, contributing 92.4% of the national income. Key outputs included wheat, maize, and rye. Agricultural practices remained largely primitive, relying on basic tools like wooden plows, with minimal use of fertilizers and inadequate drainage systems, resulting in very low productivity and limited mechanization.
Administrative Structure
Prefectures and Subdivisions
The Italian administration adopted and adapted the existing Albanian system of prefectures, which were referred to as prefetture in Italian, or provinces (provincia) in line with the broader Italian administrative structure. Uniquely for Albania, the sub-prefecture (sotto prefetture) level was retained. Initially, the country was divided into 10 prefectures, each overseen by a Prefect located in the corresponding city. These prefectures encompassed 30 sub-prefectures and 23 municipalities (municipalitร ).
Post-Yugoslavia Expansion
Following the dismemberment of Yugoslavia in 1941, the administrative map of Albania was expanded. Three new prefectures were added: Kossovo, Metohija, and Debar, which collectively included 5 new sub-prefectures. Additionally, Ulcinj was incorporated into the Scutari prefecture as a sub-prefecture, reflecting the territorial adjustments made by the Axis powers in the Balkans.
Administrative Divisions (1941)
The following table details the administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Albania in personal union with Italy as of 1941, including the prefectures, their respective sub-prefectures, and municipalities:
| Prefecture | Sub-prefectures | Municipalities |
|---|---|---|
| Berat | Fieri, Lushnje, Ballsh, Skrapar | Berat, Fieri, Lushnje |
| Peshkopi | Burreli e Mat, Zerqan | Peshkopi, Burrel |
| Durazzo | Kavaja, Krue, Shijak | Durazzo, Kavaja, Shijak, Krue |
| Elbasan | Librazhd, Gramshi | Elbasan |
| Argirocastro | Ciamuria, Delvina, Kurvelesh, Libohova, Permeti, Tepelena, Santi Quaranta | Argirocastro, Permeti, Tepelena, Porto Edda, Delvina |
| Coritza | Bilishti, Kolonjรซ, Leskoviku, Pogradeci | None |
| Kukesi | Lumรซ, Malรซsi e Gjakovรซs | Kukesi |
| Scutari | Alessio, Dukagjin, Dulcigno, Malรซsi e Madhe, Mirdite, Puka | Scutari |
| Valona | Himara | Valona |
| Tirana | None | Tirana |
| Debar | Rostuse, Tetovo | Debar, Prizren |
| Metohija | Gjakova | Peja |
| Kossovo | Rahovec, Suva Reka | Pristina |
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References
References
- Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922รขยย1945. London: Routledge, 2000. p. 132.
- Zara S. Steiner. The lights that failed: European international history, 1919รขยย1933. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 499.
- Roy Palmer Domenico. Remaking Italy in the twentieth century. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2002. p. 74.
- Raphaรยซl Lemkin. Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. Slark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2005. p. 102.
- Angelo Piero Sereni, "The Legal Status of Albania", The American Political Science Review 35 2 (1941): 317.
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