What does the Japanese term 'Kirishitan' refer to, and what is its etymological origin?

The Japanese term 'Kirishitan' (吉利支丹, 切支丹, キリシタン) refers to Catholic Christians in Japan. Its origin traces back to the Portuguese word 'cristão,' meaning 'Christian.' The term is primarily used in Japanese texts to denote Catholics in Japan during the 16th and 17th centuries, and also in relation to 'Kakure Kirishitan,' or hidden Christians. Modern Japanese uses 'kirisuto-kyōto' or 'kurisuchan' for 'Christian.'

Who were the primary founders and regions associated with the Kirishitan presence in Japan?

The Kirishitan presence in Japan was founded by Portuguese and Spanish missionaries. The primary regions with significant Kirishitan populations were Japan itself, and an exiled population in the Philippines. The religion practiced was Catholic Christianity, with the Bible as its scripture and Latin and Japanese as its languages.

How did the Treaty of Tordesillas influence the religious and trade spheres of influence for Portugal and Spain in relation to Japan?

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the world into exclusive spheres of influence for Portugal and Spain. Although neither nation had direct contact with Japan at the time of the treaty, Japan fell into the Portuguese sphere. This demarcation meant that the exclusive right to propagate Christianity in Japan was linked to the exclusive right to trade with Japan, leading to disputes between the two powers over access to the country.

What was the nature of the rivalry between the Jesuit missionaries and the mendicant orders regarding their activities in Japan?

A rivalry existed between the Portuguese-sponsored Jesuits and the Spanish-sponsored mendicant orders (Franciscans and Dominicans) in Japan. The mendicant orders entered Japan via Manila and criticized Jesuit activities, actively lobbying the Pope. This competition led to papal decrees that allowed Spanish friars access to Japan, sometimes overriding earlier allocations, and even caused a schism within the Diocese of Funai (Nagasaki).

How did the Protestant nations of the Netherlands and England impact the Catholic presence in Japan during the early 17th century?

The Netherlands and England challenged the Roman Catholic world order established by Portugal and Spain. As trade competitors, these Protestant nations engaged in campaigns against Catholicism, advising the Japanese Shogunate that Spain had territorial ambitions linked to Catholicism. This advocacy adversely affected the Shogunate's policies toward the Iberian kingdoms, contributing to the eventual isolationist policies of Japan.

What was the Jesuit strategy for propagating Christianity in Japan, and how did it differ from other orders?

The Jesuits believed in a top-down approach, aiming to influence powerful individuals first and then allow the religion to spread to commoners. They sought to avoid suspicion by not preaching to commoners without permission from local rulers. In contrast, the Dominicans and Augustinians were more inclined to preach directly to the common people, which sometimes led to faster conversions among the populace but also potentially drew more direct opposition from authorities.

Who was Francis Xavier, and what role did he play in the initial introduction of Christianity to Japan?

Francis Xavier was a Jesuit missionary and a key figure in the introduction of Christianity to Japan. He arrived in Kagoshima in 1549, accompanied by missionaries Cosme de Torres and João Fernandes. Xavier met with local leaders, including Shimazu Takahisa, and was permitted to preach his doctrine, marking the beginning of Catholic missionary activity in Japan.

How did the city of Nagasaki develop into a significant port city, and what was the role of Christianity in its rise?

Nagasaki's transformation into a major port city began around 1570, significantly driven by the arrival of Christianity and Portuguese trade. Jesuit missionaries, with the support of the Christian daimyo Ōmura Sumitada, chose Nagasaki for its natural harbor advantages. Sumitada donated land to establish a settlement for displaced Christians, granting extraterritorial privileges in exchange for securing port customs and taxes, which fostered the city's growth as a hub for trade and Catholic activity.

What were the 'dōjuku,' 'kanbō,' and 'jihiyakusha,' and what functions did they serve within the early Christian community in Japan?

Dōjuku, kanbō, and jihiyakusha were groups of laymen who supported Christian life in Japan. They assisted clergymen with activities such as celebrating Sunday liturgy in the absence of priests, providing religious education, preparing people for confession, and offering spiritual support to the sick. Kanbō were individuals who had left secular life but not taken formal vows, while jihiyakusha were married professionals. These groups were crucial for the mission's functioning.

In what ways did the Jesuits engage in economic activities in Japan, and what controversies arose from these activities?

The Jesuits engaged in economic activities to maintain self-sufficiency, often covering missionary expenses through trade profits. They participated in the Portuguese silk trade between Macau and Nagasaki, dealing in various goods including silk fabrics, gold, and musk. They also expanded into unauthorized markets and sometimes dealt in military supplies and slavery. These commercial activities generated controversy, as they were seen by some, particularly mendicant orders, as contrary to the ideal of honorable poverty and potentially corrupting the mission's purpose.

What military activities were associated with missionaries in Japan, and what were their motivations?

Missionaries were not averse to taking military action if they believed it would aid Christianization. They sometimes associated military action in Japan with the potential conquest of China, believing well-trained Japanese soldiers could assist in such endeavors. Furthermore, Jesuits provided military support to Kirishitan daimyo when they were threatened by non-Christian daimyo, as seen in their support for Ōmura Sumitada and Arima Harunobu.

How did the Goa Council of 1567 address the issue of Japanese servitude and missionary interventions?

The Goa Council of 1567 advised missionaries to recommend the release of Japanese servants once their labor adequately compensated the protection or sustenance they received, particularly in cases where individuals offered themselves for labor during famines or disasters. The council also permitted Christians to ransom unjustly condemned criminals, allowing the rescued individuals to serve as servants in return, provided no one was forced to contribute funds without compensation. Additionally, Jesuits advised against enslaving the wives and children of punished criminals and supported freeing women who sought refuge from abusive family members.

What were the primary reasons cited for Toyotomi Hideyoshi's promulgation of the Bateren Expulsion Edict in 1587?

Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued the Bateren Expulsion Edict in 1587 due to several concerns. He was alarmed by reports that Christian lords were forcing conversions, garrisoning Nagasaki, participating in the slave trade of other Japanese, and allegedly slaughtering horses and oxen, which offended his Buddhist sentiments. The edict banned missionaries and ordered their expulsion, reflecting Hideyoshi's growing suspicion of Christianity's political and social implications.

How did the San Felipe incident in 1596 influence Toyotomi Hideyoshi's perception of Christianity in Japan?

The San Felipe incident, involving a shipwrecked Spanish trading vessel, became a turning point for Catholic missions in Japan. The Spanish captain allegedly boasted about Spanish colonial ambitions, claiming that missionaries were preparing Japan for conquest. These claims made Hideyoshi suspicious of Christianity, leading him to curb its influence while attempting to maintain trade relations with Portugal and Spain.

What was the significance of the 'fumi-e' practice introduced by the Tokugawa Shogunate?

The Tokugawa Shogunate used 'fumi-e' as a method to identify and expose practicing Catholics and their sympathizers. These were images, typically of the Virgin Mary or Christ, which individuals were forced to step on. Those who showed reluctance or refused to trample on the pictures were identified as Christians, taken to Nagasaki, and subjected to torture or execution if they did not renounce their faith.

What role did the Shimabara Rebellion play in the Tokugawa Shogunate's policies towards Christians?

The Shimabara Rebellion in 1637, led by Amakusa Shirō Tokisada, began over economic hardship and government oppression but developed a religious dimension. Although crushed by the shogunate, the rebellion intensified the ruling shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu's anti-Christian stance. This led to severe measures, including the deportation of many Japanese Christians and the reinforcement of the Sakoku Edict, which restricted foreign interaction and effectively isolated Japan.

How did the Edo Shogunate's anti-Christian policies affect European traders, particularly the Dutch and English?

The Edo Shogunate's stringent ban on Christianity extended to Protestant Europeans, including the Dutch and English. The Shogunate viewed Protestant and Catholic doctrines as fundamentally similar, labeling the Dutch as 'Kirishitan' and imposing severe restrictions. This included the demolition of the Dutch warehouse in Hirado for bearing a Christian year and the desecration of a Dutch cemetery. The Dutch were confined to Dejima island, with strict prohibitions against practicing or displaying any Christian symbols or rituals.

What were the 'Kakure Kirishitan,' and how did they maintain their faith during periods of persecution?

The 'Kakure Kirishitan,' or 'Hidden Christians,' were Japanese Catholics who practiced their faith in secrecy after Christianity was banned and openly persecuted by the Tokugawa Shogunate. They maintained their faith through oral traditions, passing down biblical phrases and prayers from parent to child. Within their underground communities, secret roles ('mizukata') were assigned to baptize children, demonstrating remarkable resilience and community organization despite continuous government efforts to expose them.

What was the significance of the Kirishitan grave discovered in Minamishimabara in 1929?

The Kirishitan gravestone discovered in Minamishimabara in 1929 is significant as it is the oldest known inscription in Roman letters found in Japan. Dated October 16, 1610, it bears the name 'Hiri (Hori) Sakuemon Diego.' This artifact provides crucial evidence of early Christian missionary work and the presence of Christians in Japan during the early Edo period. It is now protected as a National Historic Site.

How did the Japanese government under Hideyoshi and later the Tokugawa Shogunate view and manage the Portuguese slave trade involving Japanese individuals?

Initially, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Bateren Expulsion Edict in 1587 included a clause against selling Japanese people to the Portuguese, suggesting concern over labor depletion. However, historical analysis indicates his primary motivations were economic and political rather than moral. Later, during the invasions of Korea, Hideyoshi's administration actively encouraged the enslavement of Koreans. While missionaries like Bishop Pedro Martins attempted to excommunicate Portuguese merchants involved in the slave trade, their efforts faced limitations. The Tokugawa Shogunate's policies were complex, sometimes restricting the trade but ultimately prioritizing stability and control over strict enforcement against foreign merchants.

What was the role of Alessandro Valignano in the Jesuit mission in Japan, and what were his key contributions?

Alessandro Valignano served as the Visitor of the East Indies' Jesuit missions, holding supreme authority over East Asia's Jesuit activities from 1573 until his death in 1606. He visited Japan three times, championing cultural adaptation and advocating for respecting local architectural traditions and consulting native builders. Valignano also founded St. Paul's College in Macao to train Japanese clergy and played a crucial role in managing relations with Japanese authorities and overseeing construction projects.

What were the main arguments and evidence presented by historians regarding the causes of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Bateren Expulsion Edict?

Historians suggest that Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Bateren Expulsion Edict in 1587 was driven by a combination of factors beyond just religious concerns. These include his declaration of Japan as a divine nation ('Shinkoku'), his military and diplomatic strategy for potential foreign conquests, fears of a political threat from Christian daimyo potentially ceding control to foreign powers, and concerns about economic issues like labor force depletion due to the Portuguese slave trade. While iconoclasm was cited, Hideyoshi's own history of attacking Buddhist institutions suggests this was a pretext. The edict's motives are seen as complex, involving religious nativism, geopolitical ambitions, and a desire to consolidate absolute authority.

How did the Kirishitan community in Japan adapt their religious practices to survive periods of persecution?

During periods of intense persecution, such as under the Tokugawa Shogunate, the Kirishitan community adapted by practicing their faith in secret, becoming known as 'Kakure Kirishitan' (Hidden Christians). They developed underground organizations and relied on oral traditions to transmit religious knowledge, including biblical phrases and prayers, from one generation to the next. They also assigned specific roles within their communities, such as 'mizukata,' to perform essential rites like baptism, ensuring the continuity of their faith without direct European clerical oversight.

What impact did the Kirishitan presence and subsequent persecution have on modern Japanese literature and popular culture?

In modern Japanese literature and popular culture, Kirishitan are often used to symbolize Japan's fear and hatred of foreigners, reinforcing conservative ideologies and national identity. From the mid-20th century onwards, they have frequently been portrayed as negative figures, representing external threats or embodying moral panic. This portrayal aligns with theories of Japanese identity ('Nihonjinron') that emphasize Japan's exceptionalism and difference from the West, using Kirishitan stereotypes to affirm Japanese superiority and cultural homogeneity.

What is the Catholic Church's view on the participants of the Shimabara Rebellion in relation to martyrdom?

The Catholic Church does not consider the participants of the Shimabara Rebellion to be martyrs. This is because they took up arms primarily for materialistic reasons, such as economic hardship and government oppression, rather than solely for their religious faith. While the rebellion had a religious dimension, its core motivations were not seen as purely religious martyrdom by the Church.

What was the significance of the 'Nanban trade period' in the context of Kirishitan history?

The 'Nanban trade period' refers to the era when Portuguese and Spanish traders, known as 'Nanban' (Southern Barbarians), first arrived in Japan, bringing with them Christianity. This period, roughly from the mid-16th to the early 17th century, saw the initial introduction and spread of Catholicism, the establishment of missions, and significant cultural exchange, but also led to political tensions and eventual persecution of Christians.

How did the Jesuit leader Alessandro Valignano attempt to adapt Christianity to Japanese culture?

Alessandro Valignano, as the Jesuit Visitor, actively promoted a deeper accommodation of Japanese culture within the Christian mission. He advocated for respecting local architectural traditions and consulting native master builders for construction projects, ensuring that Christian structures aligned with local practices. This approach allowed Japanese builders to maintain their organizational methods and techniques, fostering a more integrated presence of Christianity within Japanese society.

What were some of the defamatory rumors spread about missionaries in 16th-century Japan, and what was their likely purpose?

Missionaries in 16th-century Japan were subjected to vicious rumors, including claims that they consumed human flesh, ate children, extracted eyeballs for sorcery, or skinned and ate livestock alive. These slanders, often attributed to xenophobic fears, served to portray foreigners, particularly missionaries, as mystical agents of death and destruction, thereby inciting hatred and justifying their exclusion from Japanese society.

What was the role of Ōmura Sumitada in the early history of Christianity in Nagasaki?

Ōmura Sumitada, also known by his Christian name Dom Bartolomeu, was the first Japanese daimyo to convert to Catholicism. He played a pivotal role in the development of Nagasaki by donating land to the Jesuits for the establishment of a settlement for displaced Christians. His support was crucial for the city's growth as a port and a center for Catholic activity, despite facing opposition from anti-Christian groups and rival merchants.

How did the Tokugawa Shogunate attempt to control religious adherence among its subjects?

The Tokugawa Shogunate implemented strict measures to control religious adherence, most notably by banning Christianity. In 1614, they required all subjects to register at their local Buddhist temple, a practice that became an annual requirement ('terauke seido'). This system cemented Buddhist temples as instruments of state control, used to verify that individuals were not Christians and to ensure social orthodoxy and loyalty to the regime.

What is the historical significance of the 'Nippo Jisho'?

The 'Nippo Jisho' (also known as Vocabulario da Lingoa de lapam) was the first Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, compiled by Jesuit missionaries and published in 1603. It was a significant linguistic tool that facilitated communication and understanding between the Japanese and the European missionaries, aiding in the translation of religious texts and the overall propagation of Christianity.

What were the primary motivations behind Toyotomi Hideyoshi's expansionist ambitions, such as the invasion of Korea?

Toyotomi Hideyoshi's expansionist ambitions, including the invasion of Korea, were driven by a desire for economic gain, territorial expansion, and recognition from foreign rulers. He claimed divine legitimacy and envisioned Japan radiating virtue and ruling vast territories, including China, India, and Europe. These plans were supported by advisors and fueled by a belief in Japan's divine superiority and a desire to consolidate his power on a global scale.

How did the Japanese Christian community in Nagasaki demonstrate resilience during periods of intense persecution?

The Japanese Christian community in Nagasaki demonstrated remarkable resilience during intense persecution by maintaining their faith underground as 'Kakure Kirishitan.' They developed secret organizations, passed down religious knowledge orally, and assigned specific roles for essential rites like baptism. Despite the government's use of 'fumi-e' and other measures to expose them, these communities persisted for centuries, showcasing a deep commitment to their beliefs.

What was the 'Nanban art' style, and how did it reflect the cultural exchange during the Kirishitan period?

Nanban art refers to the style of Japanese art that emerged during the Nanban trade period, influenced by the arrival of Portuguese and Spanish traders. This art often depicted Europeans, their ships, and their customs, reflecting the cultural exchange and fascination with the 'Southern Barbarians.' Examples include screens showing Portuguese in distinctive attire and Japanese votive altars in a Nanban style, illustrating the blend of cultures and the impact of foreign interaction.

What challenges did the Jesuits face in their efforts to curb the Portuguese slave trade involving Japanese individuals?

The Jesuits faced significant challenges in curbing the Portuguese slave trade. Despite securing royal decrees banning the trade and attempting reforms like converting perpetual slavery into indentured servitude, they encountered fierce opposition from local Portuguese elites. Furthermore, the Jesuits lacked the direct authority to enforce these bans effectively, and their efforts were often undermined by the complex socio-political realities and economic interests prevalent at the time. Their compromises, such as signing temporary ownership certificates, highlight the difficult balance they struck between moral ideals and practical limitations.

How did the Japanese government under Hideyoshi and the Tokugawa Shogunate view the practice of meat-eating by Europeans?

Toyotomi Hideyoshi expressed concerns about the meat consumption habits of Europeans, particularly the depletion of livestock essential for agriculture and warfare. He reportedly offered to build a facility for foreigners to consume hunted animals if missionaries could not abstain from meat. This concern, alongside other issues, contributed to his complex policies towards foreigners and Christianity, reflecting a focus on national resources and control.

What was the significance of the 'Tenkiryō' (天主教) in the context of Kirishitan history?

The term 'Tenkiryō' (天主教), meaning 'Catholicism' or 'teaching of the Heavenly Lord,' was used in Japan to refer to the religion brought by the missionaries. It distinguished Catholicism from other forms of Christianity and was central to the identity of the Kirishitan community. The Shogunate's policies often targeted 'Tenkiryō' specifically, viewing it as a foreign doctrine that threatened Japanese social order and political stability.

What role did the 'Nippo Jisho' play in the dissemination of Christian ideas in Japan?

The 'Nippo Jisho,' the first Japanese-Portuguese dictionary compiled by Jesuit missionaries, played a crucial role in disseminating Christian ideas by facilitating communication and translation. Its existence enabled missionaries to better understand and convey Christian doctrines in Japanese, and also helped in the creation of Japanese-language Christian literature, thereby aiding the spread of the faith among the local population.

How did the Japanese government's policies, particularly the Bateren Expulsion Edict, reflect a blend of religious nativism and military strategy?

Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Bateren Expulsion Edict exemplified a blend of religious nativism and military strategy. By declaring Japan a divine nation ('Shinkoku') and deeming Christian teachings incompatible with Japan's syncretic traditions, Hideyoshi invoked religious nativism to justify the expulsion. Simultaneously, the edict served his military and diplomatic strategy, as he harbored ambitions for foreign conquests and viewed missionaries and Christian daimyo as potential obstacles to his expansionist goals and consolidation of power.

What were the 'Kakure Kirishitan' and how did their practices evolve over centuries of secrecy?

The 'Kakure Kirishitan,' or Hidden Christians, were Japanese Catholics who maintained their faith in secret for over two centuries following the ban on Christianity. Their practices evolved to include oral transmission of prayers and biblical phrases, the assignment of secret roles for rites like baptism, and the adaptation of certain Buddhist or Shinto elements to disguise their Christian identity. This allowed their faith to persist through generations despite continuous government surveillance and persecution.

What is the historical significance of the 'Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan' executed in Nagasaki in 1597?

The execution of the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan in Nagasaki in 1597 marked a significant escalation in the persecution of Christians under Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Triggered by the construction of a lavish Franciscan church in Kyoto, which was deemed an act of lèse-majesté, these executions symbolized the shogunate's growing intolerance towards Christianity and its determination to assert political authority over religious activities.

How did the Japanese government's view of Christianity evolve from the period of Oda Nobunaga to that of Tokugawa Ieyasu?

During Oda Nobunaga's rule, Christianity was generally tolerated, and he favored Jesuit missionaries like Luís Fróis, though he did not enact significant pro-Catholic policies. However, after Hideyoshi's reunification and subsequent suspicions, Christianity faced increasing restrictions, culminating in the Bateren Expulsion Edict. Tokugawa Ieyasu initially maintained a pragmatic approach, prioritizing trade, but eventually decided to ban Catholicism entirely in 1614, viewing it as a destabilizing force and a potential threat linked to foreign powers.

What was the role of the 'Misericórdia' institutions established by the Jesuits in Japan?

The Misericórdia institutions, such as the one established in Nagasaki in 1583, were charitable organizations founded by the Jesuits. They managed hospitals, including facilities for leprosy patients, and provided social welfare services. These institutions exemplified the introduction of Christian charitable principles into Japan, offering a novel framework for social support and demonstrating the Jesuits' commitment to alleviating suffering within the communities they served.

What were the main arguments used by the Tokugawa Shogunate to justify the ban on Christianity in 1614?

The Tokugawa Shogunate justified the ban on Christianity in 1614 by claiming that Christians were causing disorder in Japanese society. Their official statement asserted that followers of Christianity 'contravene governmental regulations, traduce Shinto, calumniate the True Law, destroy regulations, and corrupt goodness.' These claims framed Christianity as a pernicious doctrine incompatible with Japan's established order and social harmony.

How did the Japanese diaspora in New Spain (Mexico and the Philippines) reflect the Kirishitan experience?

Kirishitan fleeing persecution in Japan migrated to New Spain, where they achieved notable success in commerce, academia, and religious spheres. Despite being classified legally as 'Indios,' these Japanese immigrants integrated into colonial society while retaining distinct cultural identities. Their economic achievements, such as that of Juan de Páez in Guadalajara, and their contributions in intellectual and religious fields, demonstrate the resilience and adaptability of the Kirishitan community even in exile.

What was the significance of the 'Nagasaki Catholic Center' in the context of Japanese Christianity?

The Nagasaki Catholic Center, established by the Paris Foreign Missions Society, played a role in the rediscovery of Christianity in Japan. The Ōura Church, built by this society, became a site where hidden Kirishitan, who had maintained their faith for centuries, revealed themselves to French priests in 1865. This event led to the recognition of the long-standing underground Christian communities and surprised the Christian world, highlighting the enduring legacy of faith despite persecution.

How did the concept of 'Shinkoku' (Land of the Gods) influence Hideyoshi's policies towards Christianity?

Hideyoshi declared Japan a 'Shinkoku' (Land of the Gods), asserting that Christian teachings were incompatible with Japan's syncretic religious traditions. This concept served as a justification for expelling missionaries and suppressing Christianity, framing it as a foreign doctrine that threatened the purity and divine nature of Japan. His push for his own deification likely fueled this religious nativism, as he may have perceived Christianity as an obstacle to his absolute authority and divine status.

What were the main criticisms leveled by mendicant orders against the Jesuits regarding their activities in Japan?

Mendicant orders fiercely criticized the Jesuits for their commercial activities in Japan, accusing them of being corrupt and engaging in practices contrary to the ideal of honorable poverty. They considered the Jesuits' involvement in trade, including brokering Portuguese commerce and dealing in various goods, as the primary reason for Japan's ban on Catholicism. These accusations fueled the ongoing rivalry between the Jesuit and mendicant orders over the Japanese mission.

What does the historical record suggest about the extent of the Portuguese slave trade involving Japanese individuals?

Historical records suggest that Portuguese merchants began enslaving Japanese individuals as early as 1555. While specific numbers vary, estimates indicate that the Portuguese traded hundreds to thousands of Japanese slaves. Jesuit efforts to combat this trade, including securing royal decrees and attempting reforms, were largely ineffective due to weak enforcement and opposition from local Portuguese elites, allowing the trade to persist into the 17th century.

How did the Japanese government's portrayal of Kirishitan evolve in literature and popular culture from the Sakoku period through the 19th century?

From the Sakoku period through the 19th century, Kirishitan were often depicted in Japanese literature and popular culture through fabricated pseudo-histories that portrayed them as orchestrating conquests and serving as symbols of Japan's first encounter with the West. They were stereotyped as grotesque and sinister deceivers, embodying anxieties about Western influence. This evolved into fantastical villains in later folktales, serving as a foil to construct a narrative of a sacred, civilized Japan and reinforcing notions of national superiority and exceptionalism.

What was the role of the 'terauke seido' system in the Tokugawa Shogunate's control over the population?

The 'terauke seido,' or 'temple guarantee system,' was a Tokugawa Shogunate policy established in 1614 that required all subjects to register at their local Buddhist temple. This system made Buddhist ecclesiastical establishments responsible for verifying that individuals were not Christians. By the 1630s, certificates of affiliation with a Buddhist temple became proof of religious orthodoxy, social acceptability, and loyalty to the regime, effectively integrating religious control into state administration.

Kirishitan Wiki: Kirishitan: Echoes of Faith in Feudal Japan

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Introduction to Kirishitan

Defining Kirishitan

The term Kirishitan (キリシタン) is a historiographical term used in Japanese texts to refer to Catholic Christians in Japan during the 16th and 17th centuries. Derived from the Portuguese word cristão, it specifically denotes adherents of Roman Catholicism during the initial period of Christian missionary activity in Japan. While modern Japanese has other terms for "Christian," Kirishitan remains intrinsically linked to this historical era and the associated Kakure Kirishitan (Hidden Christians).

Historical Context

The arrival of Portuguese ships in 1543 marked the beginning of sustained contact between Japan and Europe. Catholic missionary efforts, primarily led by Jesuits sponsored by Portugal, commenced earnestly around 1549. This period saw the establishment of a significant Christian community, estimated to have reached 300,000 adherents at its zenith. However, this burgeoning faith faced increasing repression, culminating in its near eradication by the 17th century.

Terminology and Nuance

Missionaries were referred to as bateren (from Portuguese padre) or iruman (from irmão, "brother"). Over time, particularly during periods of persecution, derogatory kanji transcriptions such as 切支丹 and 鬼利死丹 emerged. While English historical accounts often use the general term "Christian," the specific term Kirishitan carries the weight of this unique historical context in Japanese scholarship.

Historical Trajectory

Spheres of Influence

The propagation of Christianity was deeply intertwined with the geopolitical ambitions of Portugal and Spain. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the world into exclusive spheres of influence. Although Japan was not directly contacted at the time, it fell within the Portuguese sphere. This division led to disputes, as both nations saw missionary access as intrinsically linked to trade rights. The Portuguese-sponsored Jesuits, led by Alessandro Valignano, initiated proselytizing efforts, facing objections from Spanish mendicant orders who sought their own access routes and dioceses.

Rivalries and Papal Decrees

The rivalry between the Jesuits and the Spanish mendicant orders (Franciscans, Dominicans) created internal schisms within the Japanese mission. Papal bulls, such as those from Pope Gregory XIII and Pope Clement VIII, attempted to regulate these activities, but the complex interplay of religious zeal, national interests, and ecclesiastical politics often led to conflict. The eventual entry of Protestant nations like the Netherlands and England into trade relations with Japan further complicated the landscape, as they actively campaigned against Catholicism, influencing shogunate policies.

Early Community and Structure

The early Christian community was supported by various lay groups, including dōjuku and kanbō, who assisted missionaries in liturgical celebrations, religious education, and pastoral care. These lay members played a crucial role in sustaining the mission, especially in the absence of ordained clergy. The success of the mission was not solely attributable to the missionaries but also to the support of local leaders and the organizational efforts of these communities.

Missionary Strategies

Influence Through Leadership

The Jesuit strategy, particularly championed by Alessandro Valignano, prioritized influencing figures of authority. The belief was that converting influential leaders, such as daimyō, would facilitate the subsequent spread of Christianity to their subjects. Missionaries sought permission from local rulers before preaching to commoners, aiming to avoid suspicion and leverage existing power structures.

Cultural Adaptation

Valignano advocated for a degree of cultural adaptation to make Christianity more palatable to Japanese society. This approach aimed to integrate Christian structures and practices with local customs, fostering a more sustainable presence. The construction of churches, for instance, often involved repurposing existing Buddhist temples or adapting local architectural styles, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to evangelization.

Communication and Education

The printing of Christian books in Japanese commenced in the 1590s, with presses established under Jesuit supervision producing thousands of copies. Liturgical calendars were also printed, facilitating religious practice. Missionary mail delivery networks operated throughout the country until the late 1620s, underscoring the organizational capacity developed by the early Church in Japan.

Economic Activities and Influence

Trade and Self-Sufficiency

Jesuits needed to maintain economic self-sufficiency, often financing missionary work through trade. They engaged in the Portuguese silk trade between Macau and Nagasaki, dealing in various goods, including military supplies. This commercial activity, while sometimes controversial and leading to friction with Portuguese traders and rival religious orders, provided essential funding and facilitated access to Japanese society.

The Slave Trade Controversy

The Portuguese involvement in the Japanese slave trade, particularly the enslavement of prisoners of war and vulnerable individuals, presented a significant moral dilemma. While royal decrees attempted to ban this practice, enforcement was weak. Jesuits actively campaigned against it, advocating for reforms and attempting to mitigate the worst abuses, though their authority was often limited. This issue became a point of contention and criticism from both within and outside the Church.

Nagasaki: A Christian Hub

Nagasaki's development into a major port city was significantly influenced by the arrival of Christianity and Portuguese trade. Donated to the Jesuits by the Christian daimyō Ōmura Sumitada, Nagasaki became a sanctuary for displaced Christians and a center for missionary activities. Its growth into a town of thousands, with multiple parishes and charitable institutions like the Misericórdia, highlights the profound impact of the early Christian presence.

Military and Political Entanglements

Strategic Alliances

Missionaries sometimes provided military support to Christian daimyō facing opposition from non-Christian rivals. Figures like Alessandro Valignano believed that military action could be a means to advance Christianization, even contemplating alliances for potential campaigns abroad. This involvement, however, was complex and often fraught with political implications.

Hideyoshi's Concerns

Toyotomi Hideyoshi's unification of Japan brought a new focus on foreign relations and potential threats. Reports of Christian lords engaging in forced conversions, controlling Nagasaki, and participating in the slave trade, coupled with fears of foreign conquest, led Hideyoshi to issue the Bateren Expulsion Edict in 1587. While ostensibly targeting missionaries, these actions reflected a broader concern about consolidating his authority and managing foreign influence.

Iconoclasm and Resistance

Zealous converts sometimes engaged in the destruction of Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, viewing these institutions as symbols of feudal oppression. While Jesuit leaders officially opposed such iconoclasm as counterproductive, the fervor of some communities led to acts of defiance. These actions, though often localized, contributed to the perception of Christianity as a disruptive force, fueling hostility and resistance from both religious and political authorities.

Persecution and Suppression

The Bateren Expulsion Edict

Issued in 1587 by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Bateren Expulsion Edict ordered the expulsion of Christian missionaries. This decree was influenced by a confluence of factors: fears of foreign invasion, concerns about the loyalty of Christian daimyō, and a desire to maintain Japan's cultural and religious homogeneity (Shinkoku). The edict marked a significant turning point, initiating a period of increasing governmental hostility towards Christianity.

Tokugawa Shogunate's Policies

Following Hideyoshi's death, the Tokugawa Shogunate, under Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors, intensified anti-Christian policies. The 1614 statement, drafted by Zen monk Konchiin Suden, officially banned Catholicism, deeming it disruptive to Japanese society. This was reinforced by the "temple guarantee system" (terauke seido), which required subjects to register with Buddhist temples, effectively making them instruments of state control and surveillance.

Hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan)

Despite severe persecution, including the execution of martyrs and the expulsion of clergy, Christian communities persisted underground. These "Hidden Christians" (Kakure Kirishitan) maintained their faith through oral traditions, secret baptismal rites, and clandestine organizational structures. Their resilience over centuries, often blending Christian practices with local customs, is a testament to their enduring commitment.

Governmental Policies and Control

Political Motivations

The Shogunate's policies towards Christianity were driven by a complex mix of political, economic, and social concerns. Fears of foreign territorial ambitions, particularly from Spain and Portugal, were amplified by the actions of missionaries and Christian daimyō. The perceived challenge to the Shogunate's absolute authority, coupled with anxieties about cultural assimilation and the disruption of social hierarchies, fueled the stringent enforcement of anti-Christian measures.

Xenophobia and Propaganda

Defamatory rumors and xenophobic hostility played a significant role in shaping public perception and justifying persecution. Missionaries were often depicted as sinister deceivers, engaging in cannibalism or sorcery, thereby dehumanizing them and reinforcing their status as dangerous outsiders. These narratives served to bolster conservative ideologies and Japanese national identity, emphasizing Japan's perceived superiority and exceptionalism.

Sakoku and European Relations

The Edo Shogunate's sakoku (closed country) policy severely restricted foreign interaction. Even Protestant Europeans, like the Dutch, were subjected to anti-Christian restrictions, being labeled "Kirishitan" and confined to Dejima island. The Shogunate viewed all European religious doctrines as fundamentally similar and a threat to its authority, leading to the suppression of Christian symbols and practices, even among non-Catholic Europeans.

Migration and Diaspora

Seeking Refuge in New Spain

During the early 17th century, Kirishitan fleeing persecution migrated to New Spain, encompassing modern-day Mexico and the Philippines. These émigrés, including merchants and religious refugees, integrated into colonial societies, achieving notable success in commerce and academia. Their presence contributed to the diverse cultural tapestry of the Spanish colonies.

Economic and Social Integration

Japanese immigrants in New Spain, particularly in Guadalajara, established prosperous businesses, notably in the trade of distilled spirits. Figures like Juan de Páez achieved considerable wealth and social standing, evidenced by their property holdings and participation in civic administration. The designation of Japanese immigrants as "Indios" aligned their legal status with indigenous populations, facilitating certain forms of integration.

Intellectual and Cultural Contributions

Kirishitan descendants made significant contributions in academic and religious spheres. Individuals like Luis de Sasanda and Manuel de Santa Fe pursued higher education and entered religious orders, demonstrating intellectual engagement. The description of some Kirishitan as "Asian Spaniards" by Fray Gaspar de San Agustín reflects their perceived cultural refinement and integration into the colonial elite, including privileges such as sword-bearing.

Enduring Legacy and Rediscovery

Rediscovery in the 19th Century

Following Japan's forced opening to foreign interaction in the mid-19th century, Christian clergy returned. In 1865, descendants of the Kakure Kirishitan from Urakami village revealed their continued adherence to the faith to Father Bernard Petitjean at the Ōura Church. This discovery astonished the Christian world, confirming the survival of a community that had maintained its faith in secret for nearly 250 years.

The Meiji Era and Lifting the Ban

Although the Meiji government initially continued the anti-Christian policies, international pressure led to the lifting of the ban in 1873. This enabled the return of exiles and the construction of churches, such as the Urakami Cathedral. While many Hidden Christians officially rejoined the Roman Catholic Church, some maintained their distinct traditions, though challenges in preserving their practices led many to eventually convert to Buddhism or Shinto.

Depictions in Culture

The historical narrative of Kirishitan has been shaped by anti-Christian propaganda, often portraying them as sinister figures symbolizing foreign threats and undermining Japanese identity. This portrayal persists in modern Japanese fiction, manga, and popular culture, where Kirishitan are used to reinforce conservative ideologies and nationalistic sentiments. Their historical role as perceived enemies continues to resonate, reflecting enduring anxieties about foreign influence and Japan's place in the global order.

Cultural Synthesis and Adaptation

Blended Faiths

The interaction between Christianity and Japanese traditions resulted in unique cultural syntheses. The practice of disguising Christian symbols, such as depicting the Virgin Mary as Kannon or incorporating hidden crucifixes into Buddhist statues, exemplifies the adaptive strategies employed by Kakure Kirishitan to preserve their faith amidst persecution. This syncretism highlights the complex negotiation between religious devotion and survival.

Oral Traditions and Rituals

In the absence of formal clergy for centuries, oral traditions became vital for transmitting Christian teachings. Prayers, biblical narratives, and liturgical practices were passed down through generations. Specialized roles within clandestine communities, such as mizukata (water managers), were assigned to perform essential rites like baptism, ensuring the continuity of religious life.

Legal and Social Structures

The Christian community in Nagasaki developed a distinct legal code that blended Japanese customs with milder punishments and separated various case types. This legal framework, influenced by Western principles, implicitly challenged the rigid, centralized authority of the Shogunate, contributing to the perception of Christianity as a political threat. The Jesuits' efforts to reform aspects of Japanese society, such as advocating against slavery and prostitution, also reflected their engagement with local social dynamics.

Notable Figures

Kirishitan Daimyō

Several feudal lords, known as Kirishitan daimyō, converted to Catholicism, influencing the spread of the faith within their domains. Notable figures include:

Ōmura Sumitada (Dom Bartolomeu), the first Christian feudal lord.
Arima Harunobu (Dom Protasio), Lord of Shimabara.
Kuroda Yoshitaka (Dom Simeao), a key strategist for Hideyoshi.
Konishi Yukinaga (Dom Agostinho), a prominent general.
Takayama Ukon (Dom Justo), a daimyō exiled for his faith.

Ōmura Yoshiaki (1568–1615)
Arima Naozumi (1586–1641)
Kuroda Nagamasa (1568–1623)
Gamō Ujisato (1556–1595)
Ōtomo Sōrin (Dom Francisco), known as the "King of Bungo".
Ōtomo Yoshimune (Constantino)
Ōtomo Chikaie (Dom Sebastin)
Oda Hidenobu (Peter)
Tsugaru Nobuhira (1586–1631)

Martyrs and Missionaries

The period saw numerous individuals martyred for their faith, including the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan. Key missionaries who played pivotal roles include:

Francis Xavier (1549–1551), the founder of the mission.
Cosme de Torres (1551–1570), who led as de facto Superior.
Alessandro Valignano (1573–1606), who championed cultural adaptation.
Paulo Miki (1563–1596), one of the Twenty-six Martyrs.
Hasekura Tsunenaga, who converted to Catholicism in Madrid.

Petro Kasui Kibe (1587–1639)
Itō Mancio (1570–1612), part of the Tenshō embassy.
Julião Nakaura
Martinho Hara
Miguel Chijiwa
Akashi Takenori
Leonardo Kimura (1575–1619)
Murayama Tōan "Antonio" (d. 1619)
Naitō Joan
Hosokawa Gracia
Amakusa Shirō
Julia Ōta
Naitō Julia

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References

Pedro Martins is considered to be the first bishop to reside in Japan. Sebastian de Morais was appointed as the first bishop of the Funai Diocese in 1588, but he died of illness during his voyage to Japan.

As missionary records do not mention the shrines in Nagasaki noted in Japanese sources, those shrines could have been abandoned or deteriorated due to natural exposure before the port townâs establishment.

Alejandro Valignano S. I. Sumario des las Cosas de Japon(1583). Adiciones de l sumario de Japon (1592). editados por jose Luis Alvarez-Taladriz. Tokyo 1954. Introduction. p. 70.

Oliveira, JoÃ£o Paulo Costa. "The MisericÃ³rdias among Japanese Christian Communities in the 16th and 17th centuries." Bulletin of Portuguese-Japanese Studies 5 (2002): 67-79. p.76

Oliveira, JoÃ£o Paulo Costa. "The MisericÃ³rdias among Japanese Christian Communities in the 16th and 17th centuries." Bulletin of Portuguese-Japanese Studies 5 (2002): 67-79. p.73

University of Tokyo Historiographical Institute. Strolling Through the Forest of Japanese History: 42 Fascinating Stories Told by Historical Documents. Tokyo: Chuko Shinsho, 2014, pp. 77â78.

RÃ´mulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590sâ1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342â356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 353-354

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RÃ´mulo da Silva Ehalt, Jesuit Arguments for Voluntary Slavery in Japan and Brazil, Brazilian Journal of History, Volume: 39, Number: 80, Jan-Apr. 2019., p.10

BRAH, Cortes 566 (9/2666), maÃ§o 21, f. 275. RUIZ DE MEDINA, Juan G. OrÃgenes de la Iglesia Catolica Coreana desde 1566 hasta 1784 segÃºn documentos inÃ©ditos de la Ã©poca. Rome: Institutum Historicum S.I., 1986, p. 114-22.

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Amaro, BÃ©bio Vieira. "Research Concerning the Establishment of Nagasaki's Port Town." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians of Japan 67.2 (2016): pp.3-4

Amaro, BÃ©bio Vieira. "Research Concerning the Establishment of Nagasaki's Port Town." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians of Japan 67.2 (2016): pp.14-17

Amaro, BÃ©bio Vieira. "Research Concerning the Establishment of Nagasaki's Port Town." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians of Japan 67.2 (2016): p.14., p.20

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Soh, C. Sarah. The comfort women: Sexual violence and postcolonial memory in Korea and Japan. University of Chicago Press, 2008. p. 109

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RubÃ©n Carrillo MartÃn, ASIANS TO NEW SPAIN ASIAN CULTURAL AND MIGRATORY FLOWS IN MEXICO IN THE EARLY STAGES OF âGLOBALIZATIONâ (1565-1816), 2015., pp. 98-99

Rebecca Suter, Holy Ghosts: The Christian Century in Modern Japanese Fiction Honolulu: University of Hawaiâi Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8248-4001-3, p.171

Rebecca Suter, Holy Ghosts: The Christian Century in Modern Japanese Fiction Honolulu: University of Hawaiâi Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8248-4001-3, p.108

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A full list of references for this article are available at the Kirishitan Wikipedia page

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This document has been generated by an AI, drawing upon historical texts and academic research. It is intended for educational and informational purposes only, providing an overview of the Kirishitan period in Japanese history. The content is based on the provided source material and may not encompass all nuances or interpretations of this complex historical subject.

This is not a substitute for professional historical or theological consultation. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and clarity, readers are encouraged to consult primary sources and scholarly works for in-depth understanding. The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors, omissions, or actions taken based on the information presented herein.

Kirishitan: Echoes of Faith in Feudal Japan

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction to Kirishitan ℹ️

✝️ Defining Kirishitan

🌍 Historical Context

📜 Terminology and Nuance

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🗺️ Spheres of Influence

🤝 Rivalries and Papal Decrees

⛪ Early Community and Structure

Missionary Strategies 🧭

👑 Influence Through Leadership

📚 Cultural Adaptation

🗣️ Communication and Education

Economic Activities and Influence 💰

🚢 Trade and Self-Sufficiency

⚖️ The Slave Trade Controversy

🏛️ Nagasaki: A Christian Hub

Military and Political Entanglements ⚔️

🛡️ Strategic Alliances

🏯 Hideyoshi's Concerns

🚩 Iconoclasm and Resistance

Persecution and Suppression 🔥

📜 The Bateren Expulsion Edict

🚫 Tokugawa Shogunate's Policies

👣 Hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan)

Governmental Policies and Control ⚖️

🧐 Political Motivations

🎭 Xenophobia and Propaganda

🚪 Sakoku and European Relations

Migration and Diaspora ✈️

🌏 Seeking Refuge in New Spain

📈 Economic and Social Integration

🎓 Intellectual and Cultural Contributions

Enduring Legacy and Rediscovery 💡

🔍 Rediscovery in the 19th Century

🏛️ The Meiji Era and Lifting the Ban

📖 Depictions in Culture

Cultural Synthesis and Adaptation 🌸

🎨 Blended Faiths

🗣️ Oral Traditions and Rituals

⚖️ Legal and Social Structures

Notable Figures ⭐

👑 Kirishitan Daimyō

🙏 Martyrs and Missionaries

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction to Kirishitan

Defining Kirishitan

Historical Context

Terminology and Nuance

Historical Trajectory

Spheres of Influence

Rivalries and Papal Decrees

Early Community and Structure

Missionary Strategies

Influence Through Leadership

Cultural Adaptation

Communication and Education

Economic Activities and Influence

Trade and Self-Sufficiency

The Slave Trade Controversy

Nagasaki: A Christian Hub

Military and Political Entanglements

Strategic Alliances

Hideyoshi's Concerns

Iconoclasm and Resistance

Persecution and Suppression

The Bateren Expulsion Edict

Tokugawa Shogunate's Policies

Hidden Christians (Kakure Kirishitan)

Governmental Policies and Control

Political Motivations

Xenophobia and Propaganda

Sakoku and European Relations

Migration and Diaspora

Seeking Refuge in New Spain

Economic and Social Integration

Intellectual and Cultural Contributions

Enduring Legacy and Rediscovery

Rediscovery in the 19th Century

The Meiji Era and Lifting the Ban

Depictions in Culture

Cultural Synthesis and Adaptation

Blended Faiths

Oral Traditions and Rituals

Legal and Social Structures

Notable Figures

Kirishitan Daimyō

Martyrs and Missionaries

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice