What is the fundamental definition of laissez-faire as an economic system?

Laissez-faire is an economic system characterized by transactions between private individuals that are free from any form of economic interventionism, such as subsidies or regulations. It is based on the principle that the economy functions best with minimal government involvement.

What are the core axioms upon which the system of laissez-faire rests?

The system of laissez-faire is founded on three main axioms: the individual is the basic unit in society, the individual possesses a natural right to freedom, and the physical order of nature is a harmonious and self-regulating system. These principles emphasize individual liberty and natural economic order.

What is the literal translation of the French phrase 'laissez faire, laissez passer'?

The phrase 'laissez faire, laissez passer' literally translates from French to 'let do and let pass'. In the context of economics, it signifies allowing individuals and goods to move freely without undue interference.

Who is generally credited with popularizing the phrase 'laissez faire, laissez passer'?

Vincent de Gournay, a French Physiocrat and intendant of commerce, is generally credited with popularizing the phrase 'laissez faire, laissez passer'. He is believed to have adapted it from earlier French economic thought.

What economic principle did the Physiocrats advocate for in 18th-century France?

The Physiocrats were early advocates of laissez-faire and promoted an 'impôt unique,' which was a tax specifically on land rent. They believed this was the most equitable tax because land is a naturally existing resource, and taxing it would not penalize labor or production.

How did Adam Smith's work influence the concept of laissez-faire?

Adam Smith's seminal work, 'The Wealth of Nations,' published in 1776, popularized the ideas associated with laissez-faire capitalism. He viewed the economy as a natural system where individual self-interest, guided by an 'invisible hand,' ultimately benefits society.

What is the 'invisible hand' metaphor, and how does it relate to laissez-faire?

The 'invisible hand' is a metaphor used by Adam Smith to describe the unintended social benefits resulting from individual self-interested actions in a free market. It suggests that markets can self-regulate and allocate resources efficiently without central planning, a core tenet of laissez-faire.

What was the origin of the term 'laissez-faire' in print?

The term 'laissez-faire' first appeared in print in a 1751 article in the 'Journal économique,' written by René de Voyer, Marquis d'Argenson. This article recounted an anecdote involving Jean-Baptiste Colbert and French businessmen.

What is the significance of the anecdote involving Jean-Baptiste Colbert and M. Le Gendre?

The anecdote describes M. Le Gendre responding to Colbert's offer of state assistance by saying 'Laissez-nous faire' ('Leave it to us'), implying that merchants would thrive best with minimal government intervention. This story is often cited as the origin of the laissez-faire concept.

How did Roman law contribute to the development of laissez-faire principles?

Roman law, particularly its private law concerning property and contracts, developed the theory of absolute private property and freedom of trade. This legal heritage, which emphasized individual rights and minimal state interference in private dealings, was adopted by Western societies and influenced the foundation of laissez-faire thought.

How was laissez-faire integrated into 19th-century European liberalism?

In the 19th century, laissez-faire became a key doctrine within European liberalism. Liberals advocated for economic freedom, including free trade and competition, viewing the state's role as limited to protecting private property and administering justice, rather than actively intervening in the economy.

What role did 'The Economist' newspaper play in promoting laissez-faire capitalism?

Founded in 1843, 'The Economist' newspaper became an influential voice advocating for laissez-faire capitalism. It promoted principles of free trade and minimal government intervention in economic affairs.

What was the stance of laissez-faire advocates regarding government intervention during the Irish famine?

Laissez-faire advocates, including James Wilson, the founder of 'The Economist,' argued against government aid for famines, with Wilson stating in 1847 that 'It is no man's business to provide for another.' This reflected a strict adherence to non-interventionist principles.

How did the repeal of the Corn Laws in Britain relate to laissez-faire principles?

The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, which removed tariffs on imported grain, was a victory for free trade advocates and aligned with laissez-faire principles. This repeal was partly driven by the famine in Ireland and aimed to lower the price of bread by allowing cheaper foreign imports.

What is 'liberism' as defined by Benedetto Croce?

Liberism, a term coined by Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce, is synonymous with economic liberalism and refers to the economic doctrine of laissez-faire capitalism. Croce used it to distinguish economic theories advocating minimal state intervention from broader social liberalism.

How did American classical liberals in the 19th century differ from their European counterparts regarding laissez-faire?

According to historian Kathleen G. Donohue, American classical liberals in the 19th century were often willing to accept government intervention through tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements that benefited producers, unlike their European counterparts who more strictly adhered to the idea of 'no government intervention'.

What were some examples of government intervention in the early United States economy that contradict a strict laissez-faire approach?

Examples of government intervention in the early US economy include the establishment of the Patent Office (1802), the Coast Survey (1807), Army expeditions for westward expansion, subsidies for railroads and canals, and the creation of national banks. These actions indicate a willingness to use government power to promote national economic development.

What was the 'American School' of economic thought, and how did it relate to laissez-faire?

The 'American School' of economic thought, influenced by figures like Alexander Hamilton and Henry Clay, favored protectionist tariffs and government support for industry and infrastructure. This approach contrasted with the pure laissez-faire doctrine and supported a more interventionist role for the government in economic development.

How did Ayn Rand define laissez-faire?

Ayn Rand, an advocate of Objectivism, described laissez-faire as 'the abolition of any and all forms of government intervention in production and trade, the separation of State and Economics.' She considered it the only moral social system because it protected individual rights.

What is 'left-wing laissez-faire' or 'free-market anarchism'?

Left-wing laissez-faire, also known as free-market anarchism or free-market socialism, is an economic theory that advocates for radically free markets while opposing capitalism and statist privileges. Proponents believe that truly free markets, free from state intervention and corporate privilege, would lead to anti-capitalist and pro-labor outcomes.

What are some key criticisms of laissez-faire economics?

Criticisms include Adam Smith's own misgivings about the character types produced by capitalism, John Maynard Keynes's view that laissez-faire policies are based on flawed reasoning, and Karl Polanyi's argument that self-regulating markets lead to social disruption. Critics also point to potential disregard for quality, sustainability, environmental protection, and morality.

According to John Maynard Keynes, how should the decision between market solutions and state intervention be made?

John Maynard Keynes argued in 'The End of Laissez Faire' that the question of whether market solutions or state intervention is preferable should be determined on a case-by-case basis, rather than adhering strictly to laissez-faire dogma. He believed laissez-faire policies were often based on improper deductive reasoning.

What did Friedrich Hayek say about laissez-faire banking?

Friedrich Hayek stated that a freely competitive, laissez-faire banking industry tends to be inherently destabilizing and pro-cyclical. He concluded that the need for central banking control was inescapable to manage the economy.

How did Karl Polanyi criticize self-regulating markets, a concept related to laissez-faire?

Karl Polanyi, in 'The Great Transformation,' criticized self-regulating markets as unnatural phenomena that tend to cause social disruption. He argued that the unfettered pursuit of market logic could undermine social stability and human well-being.

What are the main criticisms leveled against 'raw capitalism' or 'hyper-capitalism'?

Critics argue that raw capitalism disregards quality, durability, sustainability, environmental protection, and human beings, often lacking morality. Companies might prioritize profit over workers' and societal interests.

What is the relationship between laissez-faire and the concept of 'spontaneous order'?

Laissez-faire is closely linked to the concept of spontaneous order, which suggests that complex social and economic systems can emerge and function effectively without central planning or deliberate design. This idea posits that order arises naturally from the interactions of individuals pursuing their own interests.

How did the US government's actions during the Civil War reflect a departure from strict laissez-faire?

To finance the Civil War, the US government imposed its first personal income tax in 1861, a clear intervention in the economy. This, along with other wartime economic measures, demonstrated a willingness to use government power for national objectives, diverging from pure laissez-faire principles.

What did Kevin Carson mean by 'vulgar libertarianism'?

Kevin Carson coined the term 'vulgar libertarianism' to describe the use of free market rhetoric in defense of corporate capitalism and economic inequality. He argued that this approach deliberately ignores the contradictions within economic life and apologizes for an unjust status quo.

What is Gary Chartier's perspective on property rights and their relation to laissez-faire?

Gary Chartier views property rights as contingent social strategies, distinct from Lockean self-ownership or purely consequentialist accounts. He uses this framework to argue for robust, yet non-absolute, protections for property and supports individual-driven wealth redistribution and workplace democracy as outcomes of eliminating injustice, rather than state mandates.

How did the Physiocrats view taxation in relation to laissez-faire?

The Physiocrats advocated for a single tax ('impôt unique') on land rent, believing it was the only non-distortionary tax. They argued that taxing land, a naturally existing resource, would not penalize labor or production, aligning with their broader laissez-faire principles of minimal government interference.

What is the connection between laissez-faire and the concept of 'wu wei'?

The concept of 'wu wei' (non-action or effortless action) from Taoism is seen as a precursor or parallel to laissez-faire. French Physiocrat François Quesnay translated 'wu wei' into French as 'laissez-faire,' suggesting a philosophical link between the two ideas of allowing natural processes to unfold without interference.

How did the US government's promotion of infrastructure projects like railroads and canals align with or contradict laissez-faire ideals?

Government promotion of infrastructure, such as through the Pacific Railway Acts, aligns with a more interventionist economic approach rather than strict laissez-faire. While proponents might argue it facilitates free markets, the direct government involvement and subsidies represent a departure from the principle of minimal state intervention.

What did Thomas Hobbes's concept of the 'state of nature' imply about the need for governance, contrasting with laissez-faire ideals?

Thomas Hobbes described the 'state of nature' as a condition of 'war of all against all,' where life is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short' due to the absence of government and laws. This view underscores the necessity of a governing authority to maintain order and security, contrasting sharply with the laissez-faire ideal of minimal state intervention.

What is the main argument presented by Robert Kuttner regarding globalization and the capacity of governments?

Robert Kuttner argues that as national barriers have lowered in the name of freer commerce, governments' capacity to manage capitalism in the public interest has diminished. He suggests the core issue is not trade itself, but the challenge to democratic governance in a globalized economy.

How did the early US Republic's economic policies, as interpreted by Frank Bourgin, relate to laissez-faire?

Frank Bourgin's interpretation suggests that the Founding Fathers intended direct government involvement in the economy to ensure economic and financial stability, thereby protecting political independence. This contrasts with a pure laissez-faire approach, as they saw a strong central government promoting industry and the general welfare as essential.

What is the significance of the 'invisible hand' metaphor in relation to Adam Smith's moral philosophy?

While the 'invisible hand' metaphor is often linked to laissez-faire, Adam Smith also discussed the importance of morality in his 'Theory of Moral Sentiments.' His economic views were deeply intertwined with his moral philosophy, suggesting that a functioning market required ethical underpinnings, not just self-interest.

What did Adam Smith express as misgivings about the character types produced by capitalist society?

Adam Smith had misgivings about landlords, whom he saw as potentially indolent and inept due to their passive revenue from land ownership. He also noted that workers could become intellectually stunted by repetitive labor, and capitalists might prioritize their own interests over broader societal progress.

How did the concept of 'laissez-faire' evolve in its usage and association over time?

Initially associated with Physiocrats and classical economists like Adam Smith, the term 'laissez-faire' gained wider English usage in the 19th century. While often linked to capitalism, similar principles have also been adopted by certain socialist and anarchist traditions, leading to varied interpretations and applications of the concept.

What is the core argument of critics who claim that a truly laissez-faire system would be anti-capitalist?

Critics, particularly those in the Marxist tradition like David McNally, argue that the inherent logic of markets, when truly free and unhindered by state-granted privileges, would undermine capitalist structures. They contend that the historical development of capitalism involved coercion and exploitation that contradict the principles of a genuinely free market.

What is the distinction made between 'social liberalism' and 'economic liberalism' (liberism) in the context of laissez-faire?

Giovanni Sartori distinguished 'social liberalism,' which often supports government intervention for social welfare, from 'liberism' or 'economic liberalism,' which advocates for minimal state intervention in the economy, aligning closely with laissez-faire principles. This distinction helps clarify different strands within liberal thought.

What role did the Anti-Corn Law League play in the popularization of laissez-faire ideas in England?

The Anti-Corn Law League, founded in 1838, strongly advocated for free trade and the repeal of protectionist tariffs like the Corn Laws. Their successful campaign significantly influenced public discourse and helped solidify the association of laissez-faire principles with free market economics in England.

How did Herbert Spencer view the application of laissez-faire?

Herbert Spencer expressed opposition to a 'miserable laissez-faire' that passively allowed individuals to ruin themselves while trying to enforce their rights through law. He criticized a hands-off approach that failed to address societal issues or provide necessary support, even while generally favoring limited government.

What is the primary argument of proponents of laissez-faire capitalism regarding worker treatment?

Proponents like Milton Friedman and Thomas Sowell argue that in a laissez-faire system, employer-employee relationships are voluntary. They contend that mistreated workers would naturally seek better opportunities elsewhere, forcing companies to compete by offering better pay, benefits, and working conditions to attract and retain labor.

What is the connection between laissez-faire and the concept of 'spontaneous order'?

Laissez-faire is closely linked to the concept of spontaneous order, which suggests that complex social and economic systems can emerge and function effectively without central planning or deliberate design. This idea posits that order arises naturally from the interactions of individuals pursuing their own interests.

How did the US government's promotion of infrastructure projects like railroads and canals align with or contradict laissez-faire ideals?

Government promotion of infrastructure, such as through the Pacific Railway Acts, aligns with a more interventionist economic approach rather than strict laissez-faire. While proponents might argue it facilitates free markets, the direct government involvement and subsidies represent a departure from the principle of minimal state intervention.

What did Thomas Hobbes's concept of the 'state of nature' imply about the need for governance, contrasting with laissez-faire ideals?

Thomas Hobbes described the 'state of nature' as a condition of 'war of all against all,' where life is 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short' due to the absence of government and laws. This view underscores the necessity of a governing authority to maintain order and security, contrasting sharply with the laissez-faire ideal of minimal state intervention.

What is the main argument presented by Robert Kuttner regarding globalization and the capacity of governments?

Robert Kuttner argues that as national barriers have lowered in the name of freer commerce, governments' capacity to manage capitalism in the public interest has diminished. He suggests the core issue is not trade itself, but the challenge to democratic governance in a globalized economy.

How did the early US Republic's economic policies, as interpreted by Frank Bourgin, relate to laissez-faire?

Frank Bourgin's interpretation suggests that the Founding Fathers intended direct government involvement in the economy to ensure economic and financial stability, thereby protecting political independence. This contrasts with a pure laissez-faire approach, as they saw a strong central government promoting industry and the general welfare as essential.

What is the significance of the 'invisible hand' metaphor in relation to Adam Smith's moral philosophy?

While the 'invisible hand' metaphor is often linked to laissez-faire, Adam Smith also discussed the importance of morality in his 'Theory of Moral Sentiments.' His economic views were deeply intertwined with his moral philosophy, suggesting that a functioning market required ethical underpinnings, not just self-interest.

What did Adam Smith express as misgivings about the character types produced by capitalist society?

Adam Smith had misgivings about landlords, whom he saw as potentially indolent and inept due to their passive revenue from land ownership. He also noted that workers could become intellectually stunted by repetitive labor, and capitalists might prioritize their own interests over broader societal progress.

How did the concept of 'laissez-faire' evolve in its usage and association over time?

Initially associated with Physiocrats and classical economists like Adam Smith, the term 'laissez-faire' gained wider English usage in the 19th century. While often linked to capitalism, similar principles have also been adopted by certain socialist and anarchist traditions, leading to varied interpretations and applications of the concept.

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The Core Concept

Economic Freedom

Laissez-faire, a French term meaning "let do" or "let it be," describes an economic system characterized by minimal to no government intervention in market transactions. This philosophy rests on the foundational axioms that the individual is the primary unit of society, possesses a natural right to freedom, and that the natural order of the economy is inherently self-regulating.

Competitive Markets

A fundamental principle of laissez-faire is the emphasis on competitive markets. Early proponents stressed that markets should naturally foster competition, believing this mechanism drives efficiency and innovation without the need for external regulation.

Role of Government

Proponents advocate for a near-complete separation of government from the economic sphere. The government's role is ideally limited to upholding fundamental rights, such as private property and individual liberty, and ensuring the basic legal framework for contracts, rather than actively managing or directing economic activity.

Origins of the Phrase

French Roots

The phrase laissez faire, laissez passer ("let do, let pass") is often attributed to French minister Vincent de Gournay. It gained prominence in the mid-18th century, reflecting a growing sentiment against the heavy mercantilist regulations prevalent in France at the time.

Philosophical Basis

The concept draws inspiration from Enlightenment ideals and potentially from the Taoist principle of wu wei (non-action). It suggests that economic systems function best when left to their own natural course, guided by individual self-interest contributing to the collective good.

English Adoption

The term entered English usage in the late 18th century, popularized through discussions of Physiocratic ideas and later adopted by classical economists. Its association with the Anti-Corn Law League in Britain further cemented its meaning related to free trade principles.

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Rome

Elements of laissez-faire principles, particularly regarding private property and freedom of contract, can be traced back to Roman law. While public law allowed state interference, private law emphasized individual economic freedom, a concept that influenced Western legal traditions.

European Development

The Physiocrats in 18th-century France were key proponents, advocating for deregulation and a single tax on land rent. Adam Smith's work, particularly The Wealth of Nations, further developed these ideas, linking laissez-faire with the concept of the "invisible hand" guiding markets toward natural order and liberty.

United States Context

In the U.S., the interpretation of laissez-faire evolved. While classical liberals supported free markets, they also accepted government intervention for specific purposes like tariffs and infrastructure development. The concept has been debated alongside policies like the New Deal and Reaganomics, with figures like Ayn Rand advocating for a strict interpretation.

Relationship with Other Systems

Laissez-Faire Capitalism

Often termed "raw," "pure," or "unrestrained" capitalism, this model emphasizes minimal government and is driven primarily by the profit motive. Advocates argue it fosters voluntary relationships and competition, benefiting both workers and consumers through market forces.

Laissez-Faire and Socialism

While seemingly contradictory, some socialist traditions, particularly market anarchism and mutualism, incorporate elements of laissez-faire by advocating for free markets and voluntary cooperation without state control. However, traditional socialism typically involves significant state planning or collective ownership, contrasting sharply with laissez-faire principles.

Mixed Economies

Most modern economies operate as mixed economies, blending elements of free markets with government regulation and intervention. This approach contrasts with the pure laissez-faire ideal, aiming to balance economic freedom with social welfare and stability.

Key Principles

Property Rights

The protection of private property rights is paramount. This ensures individuals can own, use, and exchange resources freely, forming the basis for market transactions.

Non-Intervention

Government should refrain from interfering in economic activities through measures like subsidies, price controls, or excessive regulation. The belief is that such interventions distort natural market mechanisms.

Individualism

Emphasis is placed on individual autonomy, freedom of choice, and voluntary association in economic dealings. The pursuit of individual self-interest is seen as the engine of economic prosperity.

Key Figures and Ideas

Early Advocates

Thinkers like Vincent de Gournay and François Quesnay championed the idea in France. Adam Smith, though not using the term, laid crucial groundwork with his concept of the "invisible hand" in The Wealth of Nations, arguing that individual self-interest unintentionally benefits society.

Classical Economists

Classical economists like David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus, while not directly using the phrase, contributed to the body of thought supporting free markets. Jeremy Bentham and James Mill also engaged with the concept, helping to popularize it in English discourse.

Modern Adherents

Figures like Ayn Rand strongly advocated for laissez-faire capitalism as the only moral social system, emphasizing individual rights and the separation of state and economics. Economists like Milton Friedman and Thomas Sowell have also articulated arguments supporting free-market principles with minimal government intervention.

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References

Quick Reference Handbook Set, Basic Knowledge and Modern Technology (revised) by Edward H. Litchfield, PhD

Edward H. Litchfield. "Quick Reference Handbook Set, Basic Knowledge and Modern Technology" (revised ed.).

As quoted in J. M. Keynes, 1926, "The End of Laissez Faire". Argenson's MÃ©moirs were published only in 1858, ed. Jannet, Tome V, p. 362. See A. Oncken (Die Maxime Laissez faire et laissez passer, ihr Ursprung, ihr Werden, 1866).

"Tant, encore une fois, qu'on laisse faire la nature, on ne doit rien craindre de pareil", P.S. de Boisguilbert, 1707, Dissertation de la nature des richesses, de l'argent et des tributs.

Fine, Sidney. Laissez Faire and the General-Welfare State. United States: The University of Michigan Press, 1964. Print

Gotthelf 2000, pp. 91â92; Peikoff 1991, pp. 379â380.

Sciabarra 1995, pp. 266â267; Burns 2009, pp. 268â269.

Sciabarra 1995, pp. 280â281; Peikoff 1991, pp. 371â372; Merrill 1991, p. 139.

Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia

Brown, Susan Love. 1997. "The Free Market as Salvation from Government". In Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture. Berg Publishers. p. 107.

Carson, Kevin A. (2008). Organization Theory: A Libertarian Perspective. Charleston, SC:BookSurge.

Carson, Kevin A. (2010). The Homebrew Industrial Revolution: A Low-Overhead Manifesto. Charleston, SC: BookSurge.

Long, Roderick T. (2000). Reason and Value: Aristotle versus Rand. Washington, DC:Objectivist Center

Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (2000). Total Freedom: Toward a Dialectical Libertarianism. University Park, PA:Pennsylvania State University Press.

Chartier, Gary (2009). Economic Justice and Natural Law. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Gillis, William (2011). "The Freed Market." In Chartier, Gary and Johnson, Charles. Markets Not Capitalism. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 19â20.

Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 1â16.

Gary Chartier and Charles W. Johnson (eds). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Minor Compositions; 1st edition (November 5, 2011

See Gary Chartier, Anarchy and Legal Order: Law and Politics for a Stateless Society (New York: Cambridge UP 2013) 44â156.

See Gary Chartier, "Natural Law and Non-Aggression," Acta Juridica Hungarica 51.2 (June 2010): 79â96 and, for an earlier version, Justice 32â46.

See Gary Chartier, "Pirate Constitutions and Workplace Democracy," Jahrbuch fÃ¼r Recht und Ethik 18 (2010): 449â467.

See Gary Chartier,' "Intellectual Property and Natural Law," Australian Journal of Legal Philosophy 36 (2011): 58â88.

Spencer J. Pack. Capitalism as a Moral System: Adam Smith's Critique of the Free Market Economy. Great Britain: Edward Elgar, 2010. Print

A full list of references for this article are available at the Laissez-faire Wikipedia page

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Laissez-Faire: The Unfettered Economy

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

The Core Concept 🏛️

⚖️ Economic Freedom

🤝 Competitive Markets

📜 Role of Government

Origins of the Phrase 🗣️

🇫🇷 French Roots

💡 Philosophical Basis

🇬🇧 English Adoption

Historical Trajectory ⏳

🏛️ Ancient Rome

🌍 European Development

🇺🇸 United States Context

Relationship with Other Systems 🔗

📈 Laissez-Faire Capitalism

🚩 Laissez-Faire and Socialism

⚖️ Mixed Economies

Key Principles 💡

🔒 Property Rights

🕊️ Non-Intervention

👤 Individualism

Key Figures and Ideas 👤

👨‍🏫 Early Advocates

📚 Classical Economists

⭐ Modern Adherents

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Core Concept

Economic Freedom

Competitive Markets

Role of Government

Origins of the Phrase

French Roots

Philosophical Basis

English Adoption

Historical Trajectory

Ancient Rome

European Development

United States Context

Relationship with Other Systems

Laissez-Faire Capitalism

Laissez-Faire and Socialism

Mixed Economies

Key Principles

Property Rights

Non-Intervention

Individualism

Key Figures and Ideas

Early Advocates

Classical Economists

Modern Adherents

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice