Imperial Succession

Born in Naissus around 272 CE, Constantine I, often lauded as 'the Great,' was the son of Emperor Constantius Chlorus. Ascending to power in the Western Roman Empire in 306 CE, he consolidated his authority by defeating Licinius in 324 CE, thereby reuniting the entire Roman Empire. His reign marked a pivotal transition, characterized by the completion of Diocletian's administrative and military reforms and a profound engagement with Christianity. Constantine's convocation of the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325 CE was instrumental in shaping Christian doctrine and practice. Furthermore, he established Constantinople as the new imperial capital, a strategic and symbolic move that laid the foundation for the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. His legacy as a model ruler and a saint venerated by the Orthodox Church underscores his enduring impact.^[9][10][11]

Born in 317 CE, Constantius II was the second surviving son of Constantine I. He inherited the eastern portion of the empire upon his father's death and became the sole Roman Emperor from 353 CE after defeating the usurper Magnentius. His reign was marked by extensive military campaigns across the empire's frontiers and significant religious controversy, particularly concerning the theological disputes between Arianism, which he favored, and Nicene Christianity. During his rule, Constantinople was elevated to equal status with Rome, and the original Hagia Sophia was constructed. Constantius appointed his cousins Gallus and Julian as Caesars, but died en route to confront Julian, who had rebelled against him.^[12][13]

Born in Constantinople in 332 CE, Julian was the grandson of Constantius Chlorus and cousin to Constantius II. Proclaimed emperor by his army in Gaul, he legally assumed the imperial title upon Constantius II's death. Julian is notably remembered as the last pagan emperor of the Roman Empire, actively seeking to revive traditional Roman religious practices and opposing Christianity, which earned him the epithet "the Apostate." His military campaign against the Sassanid Empire ended tragically with his death in battle in 363 CE.^[14][15][16]

Born in Spain in 347 CE, Theodosius I was a distinguished military leader appointed emperor of the East by Gratian. His reign is historically significant for establishing Nicene Christianity as the official state religion of the Roman Empire. He also reunited the empire under his sole rule after defeating Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus in 394 CE. Upon his death in 395 CE, the empire was permanently divided between his sons, Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West, marking a critical juncture in Roman history.^{[26][27][28][29]}

Born in 377/378 CE, Arcadius became Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire upon the death of his father, Theodosius I, in 395 CE. This event formalized the permanent division of the Roman Empire. Arcadius's reign, like that of his Western counterpart Honorius, was largely influenced by powerful court officials, and he is often characterized as lacking his father's strong leadership qualities. He died in 408 CE.^[30][31]

Born in 401 CE, Theodosius II succeeded his father Arcadius as emperor. His early reign was guided by regents, notably his sister Pulcheria, who significantly influenced imperial policy and religious orthodoxy. Theodosius II is renowned for commissioning the formidable Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, which protected the city for over a millennium. He also oversaw the compilation of the Theodosian Code, a comprehensive legal compilation that influenced subsequent legal systems. His reign saw theological developments, including the Council of Ephesus, and faced challenges from the Huns. He died in 450 CE.^{[32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]}

Born around 396 CE, Marcian was a soldier and politician who ascended to the throne after marrying Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius II. His reign was marked by efforts to stabilize the empire amidst external pressures and internal challenges. He died of gangrene.^[40]

Born around 450 CE in Dardania, Justin I rose from humble origins to become a military officer and commander of the Excubitors. He was elected emperor upon the death of Anastasius I, initiating the Justinian dynasty. His reign laid the groundwork for the achievements of his more famous nephew, Justinian I.^[52]

Born around 482/483 CE in Tauresium, Macedonia, Justinian I was the nephew and successor of Justin I. His reign is considered a golden age of Byzantine history, marked by ambitious military campaigns that reconquered significant territories in North Africa, Italy, and Spain. He commissioned monumental architectural projects, most notably the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Justinian also codified Roman law in the monumental Corpus Juris Civilis, which profoundly influenced legal systems across Europe. His reign, however, was also challenged by plagues and wars.^[53][54]

Born around 520 CE, Justin II was the nephew of Justinian I and succeeded him as emperor. His reign was marked by increasing mental instability, leading to periods of regency by his wife Sophia and later Tiberius Constantine. He faced significant military challenges, including conflicts with the Lombards and the Avars.^[55]

Born around 535 CE, Tiberius II Constantine was a high-ranking military official and friend of Justin II. He served as Caesar and regent before succeeding Justin II as emperor. His reign was characterized by ongoing wars with the Sassanian Empire and the Avars, and he is noted for his efforts to reform the administration and military.^[55]

Born in 539 CE in Cappadocia, Maurice was a distinguished general who rose to prominence in the Byzantine army. He succeeded Tiberius II Constantine as emperor and led successful campaigns against the Sassanian Empire and the Avars. Maurice is also known for his military treatise, the "Strategikon." His reign ended tragically when he was overthrown and executed by Phocas in 602 CE.^[57][58][59]

Leontius, an Isaurian general, deposed Justinian II in 695 CE. His reign was brief, as he was overthrown in another military revolt in 698 and subsequently executed.^[j]

Originally named Apsimar, Tiberius III was an admiral of Germanic origin who seized power after a failed expedition. He reigned under the name Tiberius until Justinian II regained the throne in 705 CE. Tiberius III was executed shortly thereafter.^[j]

Justinian II returned to power in 705 CE with Bulgarian support, following his deposition and exile. His second reign continued until his deposition and death in 711 CE. He had named his son Tiberius as co-emperor.^[g]

Philippicus, an Armenian general, deposed Justinian II but was himself overthrown by a revolt of the Opsician troops in 713 CE.^[j]

Originally named Artemios, Anastasius II was a bureaucrat and secretary who rose to power after Philippicus was overthrown. He was later deposed by another military revolt and died attempting to regain the throne.^[j]

Theodosius III, a fiscal official, was proclaimed emperor by rebellious troops. He entered Constantinople in 715 CE but abdicated in favor of Leo the Isaurian in 717 CE, subsequently becoming a monk.^[j]

Born around 685 CE in Germanikeia, Leo III was a general who rose to power through rebellion. He successfully repelled the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople and initiated the Byzantine Iconoclasm, a policy that banned the veneration of religious images. His reign marked the beginning of the Isaurian dynasty.^[j]

Born in July 718 CE, Constantine V was the son of Leo III and co-emperor from 720. After overcoming the usurpation of Artabasdos, he continued his father's iconoclastic policies and achieved military victories against the Arabs and Bulgars. He is infamously known as "Copronymus" (dung-named) by hostile chroniclers.^[j]

Artabasdos, a general and son-in-law of Leo III, led a revolt that captured Constantinople. He was proclaimed emperor but was ultimately defeated and deposed by Constantine V, who ordered him blinded.^[j]

Born in 750 CE, Leo IV was the son of Constantine V and co-emperor from 751. He succeeded his father in 775 CE.^[j]

Born in 771 CE, Constantine VI was the son of Leo IV and co-emperor from 776. He became sole emperor upon his father's death but was later overthrown and blinded on the orders of his mother, Irene of Athens.^[j]

Born around 752 CE in Athens, Irene married Leo IV and was crowned empress. She served as regent for her son Constantine VI from 780 to 790, and then again after blinding and deposing him in 797, becoming the first empress-regnant. She convened the Second Council of Nicaea, which restored the veneration of icons. Deposed in a palace coup in 802, she died in exile.^[j]

Nikephoros I, a high-ranking finance minister under Irene, led successful campaigns against the Bulgars but was killed at the Battle of Pliska in 811 CE.^[j]

The only son of Nikephoros I, Staurakios was crowned co-emperor in 803. He succeeded his father but was severely wounded at the Battle of Pliska, leaving him paralyzed. He was forced to abdicate and retired to a monastery, where he died soon after.^[j]

Michael I Rangabe, son-in-law of Nikephoros I, succeeded Staurakios. He resigned after a revolt led by Leo the Armenian and retired to a monastery. He had his eldest son Theophylact crowned as co-emperor.^[j]

Leo V, an Armenian general, rebelled against Michael I and became emperor. He reinstated Byzantine Iconoclasm and appointed his son Constantine as co-emperor. Leo V was murdered by a conspiracy led by Michael the Amorian.^[j]

Born around 811 CE in Macedonia, Basil I rose from humble origins to become a favorite of Michael III. He overthrew Michael and established the Macedonian dynasty. His reign was marked by successful wars in the East and the recovery of southern Italy. He also appointed his son Constantine as co-emperor.^[j]

Born in 866 CE, Leo VI was the son of Basil I. Known for his intellectual pursuits, his reign saw significant naval raids by Saracens and unsuccessful wars against the Bulgarians. He was a prolific writer and scholar.^[j]

Alexander, son of Basil I, was born in 870 CE and raised to co-emperor in 879. He succeeded Leo VI, sidelining his brother's aides. He died of illness, possibly testicular cancer.^[69]

Born in 905 CE, Constantine VII was the son of Leo VI. His early reign was dominated by regencies, notably by his mother Zoe Karbonopsina and Admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who usurped senior imperial status. Constantine VII eventually regained full control in 945 CE. His reign is notable for the "Macedonian Renaissance," sponsoring scholarly works and writing important manuals on statecraft and ceremonies for his son.^[70]

An admiral of humble origins, Romanos I Lekapenos rose to power as a protector of Constantine VII, eventually becoming senior emperor in 920. His reign saw the end of warfare with Bulgaria and significant eastern conquests. He was overthrown by his own sons, Stephen and Constantine, and died in exile.^[71][72]

The only surviving son of Constantine VII, Romanos II succeeded his father in 959 CE. His reign, though brief, was marked by successful military campaigns in the East and the reconquest of Crete. He died in 963 CE.^[77]

Nikephoros II Phokas, a highly successful general, rose to the throne as regent for the young sons of Romanos II. He married the empress-dowager Theophano and led campaigns in the East, conquering much of Syria. He was assassinated by his nephew, John Tzimiskes.^[73]

Nephew of Nikephoros Phokas, John I Tzimiskes was a successful general who murdered his uncle to seize the throne. He served as emperor and regent for the sons of Romanos II. Tzimiskes crushed the Rus' in Bulgaria and campaigned successfully in the East.^[73]

Born in 958 CE, Basil II was the son of Romanos II. His early reign was marked by internal rivalries and wars, including a protracted conflict with Bulgaria, which he eventually conquered, earning him the epithet "Bulgar-Slayer." His reign is considered the apogee of medieval Byzantium, characterized by military expansion and diplomatic achievements, including the conversion of Kievan Rus' to Orthodox Christianity.^{[73][74][75][76]}

Born in 960 CE, Constantine VIII was the second son of Romanos II and co-emperor from 962. During Basil II's long reign, he lived a life of leisure. His own reign was brief and marked by indifference and suspicion towards the aristocracy.^[77]

Born in 968 CE, Romanos III Argyros was an elderly aristocrat chosen by Constantine VIII to succeed him, requiring him to marry the emperor's daughter Zoe. His reign was characterized by attempts to emulate past emperors like Marcus Aurelius and Trajan, leading to costly military failures. He was ultimately murdered by his wife Zoe and her lover.^[78][79]

Born in 1010 CE, Michael IV was a lover of Zoe even before her marriage to Romanos III, whom he succeeded. Aided by his brother John the Orphanotrophos, his reign saw moderate success against internal rebellions but failed attempts to reconquer Sicily. He died after a prolonged illness.^[79]

Born in 1015 CE, Michael V was the nephew and adopted son of Michael IV. He attempted to sideline Empress Zoe but was overthrown by a popular revolt and forced to restore her and her sister Theodora. He was subsequently deposed, castrated, and tonsured.^[k]

The daughter of Constantine VIII, Zoe Porphyrogenita was the last living member of the Macedonian dynasty. She ruled alongside her sister Theodora and her three husbands: Romanos III, Michael IV, and Constantine IX.^[k]

The younger sister of Zoe, Theodora Porphyrogenita was born in 984 CE. She was raised as co-ruler in 1042. After Zoe's death and Constantine IX's death, Theodora assumed full governance until her own death, nominating Michael VI as her successor.^[k]

Born around 1000 CE, Constantine IX Monomachos was an aristocrat chosen as Zoe's third husband. His reign was marked by military challenges from the Pechenegs and Seljuk Turks, as well as the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western Churches.^[k][81]

Theodora Porphyrogenita reassumed the throne after Constantine IX's death as the last living member of the Macedonian dynasty. She ruled until her death from natural causes.^[82]

Michael VI Bringas, a court bureaucrat, was proclaimed emperor by Theodora on her deathbed. He was deposed by a military revolt led by Isaac Komnenos and retired to a monastery.^[k]

Born around 1005 CE, Isaac I Komnenos was a successful general who led a revolt against Michael VI. He was declared emperor and ruled until his abdication in 1059 CE.^[k]

Born in 1006 CE, Constantine X Doukas was a general and ally of Isaac I Komnenos. He succeeded Isaac I and named his sons Michael VII, Andronikos, and Konstantios as co-emperors. His widow, Eudokia Makrembolitissa, served as regent.^[l][83]

Eudokia Makrembolitissa, widow of Constantine X, served as regent for her sons. She briefly resumed her regency in 1071 after Romanos IV's deposition and later died as a nun.^[83]

Born in 1032 CE, Romanos IV Diogenes was a general who married Eudokia Makrembolitissa and became senior emperor. His reign was marked by the disastrous Battle of Manzikert, after which he was deposed, blinded, and exiled.^[g][m]

Born in 1050 CE, Michael VII Doukas was the son of Constantine X. His reign saw a significant devaluation of the Byzantine currency, earning him the nickname "Parapinakes" (minus a quarter). He abdicated before the revolt of Nikephoros Botaneiates.^[g]

Nikephoros III Botaneiates, the strategos of the Anatolic Theme, was proclaimed emperor in 1078. He was overthrown by the Komnenos clan and retired to a monastery.^[85]

Born in 1056 CE, Alexios I Komnenos was a distinguished general who overthrew Nikephoros III. His long reign was dominated by wars against the Normans, Seljuk Turks, and the arrival of the First Crusade. He also managed the establishment of Crusader states. Alexios I named his son John as co-emperor.^[g]

Born in 1087 CE, John II Komnenos was the eldest son of Alexios I. Known for his piety, frugality, and military prowess, he focused on wars against the Turks. He was known as "John the Good" and named his eldest son Alexios as co-emperor.^[g]

Born in 1118 CE, Manuel I was the fourth son of John II. An energetic ruler, he engaged in campaigns against the Turks, Hungary, and the Crusader states, and attempted to recover Italy and Egypt. His extensive military activities and extravagance depleted the empire's resources.^[85]

Born in 1169 CE, Alexios II was the son of Manuel I. His reign was marked by the regency of his mother Maria of Antioch, who was overthrown by Andronikos I Komnenos. Andronikos then had the young Alexios II strangled.^[85][86]

Born around 1118 CE, Andronikos I Komnenos seized the throne from his nephew Alexios II. An unpopular ruler, he was overthrown by Isaac II Angelos, tortured, and dismembered by a mob.^[85][88]

Born in September 1156 CE, Isaac II Angelos came to power through a revolt against Andronikos I. His reign was marked by internal revolts and wars, particularly against Bulgaria. He was deposed, blinded, and imprisoned by his brother Alexios III. Later restored by the Fourth Crusade, he was deposed again by Alexios V Doukas and died shortly thereafter.^[n]

Born in 1153 CE, Alexios III Angelos was the elder brother of Isaac II. His reign was characterized by misgovernment and the growing autonomy of provincial leaders. He was deposed by the Fourth Crusade and died in captivity.^[n]

Born in 1182 CE, Alexios IV Angelos was the son of Isaac II. He enlisted the Fourth Crusade to restore his father to the throne and reigned alongside him. Due to his inability to satisfy the Crusaders' financial demands, he was deposed by Alexios V Doukas and strangled in prison.^[88]

Born in 1140 CE, Alexios V Doukas was a prominent aristocrat and son-in-law of Alexios III. He seized power in a coup, deposing Isaac II and Alexios IV. He attempted to resist the Crusaders but was forced to flee Constantinople. Captured by the Crusaders, he was blinded and thrown from the Column of Theodosius.^[88]