What is literary modernism and when did it originate?

Literary modernism is a Western literary movement that originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It is characterized by a deliberate departure from traditional methods of writing in both poetry and prose fiction.

What was the core principle or maxim associated with literary modernism?

A central tenet of literary modernism is encapsulated in Ezra Pound's maxim, "Make it new." This reflected a conscious effort to innovate and break away from established literary forms and expressions.

What were the primary motivations behind the modernist literary movement?

Modernist literature was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and to express the new sensibilities and experiences of the time. This included responding to the rapid technological advancements and societal shifts of modernity.

How did the First World War influence literary modernism?

The immense human costs and societal upheaval caused by the First World War led to a reassessment of prevailing assumptions about society. Much modernist writing engaged with this disillusionment and the changing world that emerged from the conflict.

According to Mary Ann Gillies, what is a central characteristic of modernist literature?

Mary Ann Gillies notes that a central characteristic of modernist literature is a "conscious break with the past." This break is described as a complex response across different continents and disciplines to a world undergoing significant change.

What famous line from W. B. Yeats is often used to summarize the modernist sentiment?

The line "Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold" from W. B. Yeats's poem 'The Second Coming' is often used to encapsulate the modernist feeling of fragmentation and loss of order.

How do modernists typically approach the concept of a metaphysical 'centre' in their works?

Modernist writers often search for a metaphysical 'centre' or ultimate truth, but their works frequently depict the experience of its collapse or absence. This contrasts with postmodernism, which often celebrates this collapse and deconstructs metaphysical claims.

Which philosopher's ideas are seen as tracing back the collapse of metaphysics that influenced modernism?

The Scottish philosopher David Hume, with his skepticism about causality and the self, is seen as a philosophical precursor to the modernist exploration of the collapse of metaphysics. Hume argued that we only perceive the constant conjunction of events, not a true cause, and that the self is known only as a subject, not an object.

How do characters like Marlow in 'Heart of Darkness' and Nick Carraway in 'The Great Gatsby' reflect modernist themes?

Characters like Marlow and Nick Carraway often believe they have discovered profound truths about nature or character, but the novels treat these perceived truths ironically, offering more mundane explanations. This reflects the modernist tension between the search for meaning and the acknowledgment of its elusiveness.

How does Wallace Stevens' poetry engage with the concept of meaning in nature?

Wallace Stevens' poetry often explores the struggle with nature's significance, presenting poems where the speaker either denies nature has meaning, only for it to reassert itself, or claims it has meaning, only for that meaning to collapse by the poem's end.

In what way did modernism often reject 19th-century realism?

Modernism often rejected 19th-century realism when realism was understood as focusing solely on the embodiment of meaning within a naturalistic representation. However, some modernists sought a 'more real' realism that was uncentered and embraced multiple perspectives.

How did Picasso's 'The Poet' exemplify a move towards a more 'real' realism in modernist art?

Picasso's proto-cubist painting 'The Poet' (1911) is cited as an example of modernist realism because it presents the subject from multiple viewpoints, synthesizing them into a single image. This approach avoids the limitations of a single, privileged perspective and suggests a more objective representation.

How is modernism seen as an 'apotheosis' of romanticism?

Modernism can be viewed as the ultimate expression of romanticism, particularly when romanticism is understood as a quest for metaphysical truths about character, nature, higher powers, and meaning. Modernism often shares this yearning but ultimately confronts the collapse of these truths.

What distinction is made between modernist and romantic treatments of 'symbol'?

While some Romantics saw an essential, divine connection between symbols and their meanings (like Coleridge viewing nature as God's language), modernist theory, influenced by Symbolism, often emphasizes the inscrutability and failure of symbols and metaphors. Meaning, for modernists, might be sensed but remains elusive or unattainable.

What is an example of an 'unnatural' modernist metaphor?

T.S. Eliot's description of an evening 'spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherized upon a table' is cited as an example of an unnatural modernist metaphor, juxtaposing the sublime with the clinical.

What philosophical and psychological ideas influenced early modernist literature?

Early modernist literature was influenced by thinkers like Sigmund Freud, who explored the unconscious mind and drives, and Ernst Mach, who examined the structure of the mind and subjective experience. Friedrich Nietzsche's ideas on psychological drives and Henri Bergson's theories on time and consciousness also played significant roles.

How did Ernst Mach's work influence modernist thought?

Ernst Mach's work, particularly his ideas on the structure of the mind and subjective experience, influenced logical positivism and foreshadowed concepts in Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. His critique of Newtonian physics also contributed to a questioning of established certainties.

How did Freud's and Jung's psychological theories impact modernist literature?

Freud's exploration of the unconscious mind and its primal impulses, combined with Jung's concept of the collective unconscious, provided modernist writers with new ways to explore human psychology. These ideas suggested that impulses to break social norms could stem from fundamental human nature, rather than mere ignorance.

What was Henri Bergson's key contribution to modernist literary techniques?

Henri Bergson's emphasis on the difference between objective 'clock time' and subjective, lived experience of time greatly influenced modernist novelists. His ideas directly contributed to the development and use of the stream-of-consciousness technique in works by authors like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.

What societal changes are cited as reactions that shaped modernist literature?

Modernist literature is seen as a reaction to significant societal changes, including industrialization, urbanization, and the introduction of new technologies, which altered the landscape and human experience of the early 20th century.

Which literary figures are considered important precursors to modernism?

Key literary precursors to modernism include Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Walt Whitman, Gustave Flaubert, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud, Knut Hamsun, and August Strindberg, whose works explored psychological depth, subjective experience, and new narrative forms.

How did modernist writers break from the 'implicit contract' with the public?

Many modernist writers, particularly after World War I, broke the implicit contract that artists were reliable interpreters of mainstream culture. Instead, they developed techniques like unreliable narrators to expose the irrationality underlying a supposedly rational world.

What new literary techniques emerged from the influence of modernist thinkers?

Influenced by thinkers like Darwin, Mach, Freud, Einstein, Nietzsche, and Bergson, modernist writers developed innovative techniques such as stream-of-consciousness, interior monologue, and the use of multiple points-of-view. These techniques aimed for greater psychological realism and reflected doubts about traditional narrative realism.

When is the beginning of the modernist literary movement often debated to have occurred?

The exact start date of literary modernism is debated, but some scholars point to around 1910, referencing Virginia Woolf's observation that human nature underwent a fundamental change "on or about December 1910." However, significant modernist works appeared earlier, such as Joseph Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness' (circa 1902) and Alfred Jarry's 'Ubu Roi' (1896).

What non-literary artistic developments paralleled the rise of literary modernism?

Non-literary developments that paralleled literary modernism include Arnold Schoenberg's atonal music (1908), Wassily Kandinsky's Expressionist paintings and the founding of the Blue Rider group (1911), the rise of Fauvism, and the introduction of Cubism by artists like Picasso and Braque between 1900 and 1910.

What made Sherwood Anderson's 'Winesburg, Ohio' an early modernist work?

Sherwood Anderson's 'Winesburg, Ohio' (1919) is considered an early modernist work due to its plain-spoken prose style and its focus on providing psychological insight into its characters.

How did T. S. Eliot describe James Joyce's technique in 'Ulysses'?

T. S. Eliot described Joyce's technique in 'Ulysses' as 'a way of controlling, of ordering, of giving a shape and a significance to the immense panorama of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history.' He saw it as a step towards making the modern world possible for art, using a 'mythical method' instead of a narrative one.

What is the thematic purpose of the fragmented structure in T. S. Eliot's 'The Waste Land'?

The fragmented structure of T. S. Eliot's 'The Waste Land' (1922) serves as a rhetorical technique to convey the poem's theme of the decay and fragmentation of Western culture. Despite its fragmentation, the poem finds structure through fertility symbolism and the use of quotations and juxtaposition.

Which Italian poets are noted for embodying modernism in their work?

Eugenio Montale, Giuseppe Ungaretti, and Umberto Saba are noted Italian poets who embodied modernism. They broke with previous poetic traditions in style, language, and tone, and were aware of the changing role of the poet in the 20th century.

How did Gertrude Stein's abstract writings relate to modernist visual art?

Gertrude Stein's abstract writings, such as 'Tender Buttons' (1914), have been compared to the fragmentary and multi-perspective Cubist paintings of her friend Pablo Picasso. This comparison highlights shared modernist concerns with form and representation.

What is the significance of Hugh MacDiarmid's 'A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle' in the context of modernism?

Hugh MacDiarmid's 'A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle' (1928) is seen as an example of modernism using comedic parody to address nationalism. It represents an optimistic, though still challenging, form of modernism where the artist embraces complexity and seeks new meanings.

How did modernist works blur the boundaries between literary genres?

Modernist works often sought to obscure the distinctions between genres, leading to prose works that were poetical and poetry that was prose-like. For instance, Virginia Woolf's novels were described as poetical, while T. S. Eliot's poetry sacrificed lyrical grace for fragmented narrative.

Which authors are listed as early modernist writers with notable works?

Early modernist writers and their works include Knut Hamsun ('Hunger'), Italo Svevo ('Zeno's Conscience'), Luigi Pirandello ('Six Characters in Search of an Author'), Rainer Maria Rilke ('Sonnets to Orpheus'), Guillaume Apollinaire ('Alcools'), Andrei Bely ('Petersburg'), Katherine Mansfield ('Prelude'), Georg Trakl ('Poems'), Franz Kafka ('The Metamorphosis'), and Sherwood Anderson ('Winesburg, Ohio').

What significant modernist works were published in the 1920s and 1930s?

Significant modernist works from the 1920s and 1930s include Marcel Proust's later volumes of 'In Search of Lost Time,' Virginia Woolf's 'Mrs. Dalloway' and 'The Waves,' Robert Musil's 'The Man Without Qualities,' Eugene O'Neill's plays, D. H. Lawrence's 'Lady Chatterley's Lover' (1928), William Faulkner's 'The Sound and the Fury' (1929), and T. S. Eliot's 'The Waste Land' (1922) and 'The Hollow Men'.

How did the concept of 'late modernism' emerge in literary discussion?

The term 'late modernism' is sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930, and more recently, redefined to include works written after 1945. This usage acknowledges that the ideology of modernism was significantly reshaped by events like World War II and the Holocaust.

Which prominent modernist writers continued to publish significant works after 1945?

Writers like Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound continued to publish after 1945, with some being described as 'late modernists' or neo-modernists.

How is Samuel Beckett described in relation to modernism?

Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, is often described as a 'later modernist.' His work, rooted in the expressionist tradition, spanned from the 1930s to the 1980s, and his later works have also been labeled as minimalist or post-modernist.

What is the 'Theatre of the Absurd' and when did it primarily emerge?

The 'Theatre of the Absurd' refers to plays by primarily European playwrights, generally seen as emerging in the 1950s, that express the belief that human existence is meaningless and that communication breaks down. It is characterized by irrational speech, illogical construction, and ultimately, silence.

Who coined the term 'Theatre of the Absurd' and what is its core theme?

Critic Martin Esslin coined the term 'Theatre of the Absurd' in 1960. The core theme is humanity's reaction to a world perceived as without meaning, or the experience of being controlled by unseen forces, leading to a breakdown in logical communication.

What are some common characteristics of plays associated with the Theatre of the Absurd?

Plays in the Theatre of the Absurd often feature a mix of broad comedy and tragic imagery, characters trapped in hopeless or repetitive situations, dialogue filled with clichés and wordplay, and plots that are cyclical or nonsensical. They frequently parody or dismiss traditional dramatic conventions like the 'well-made play'.

Which playwrights are commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd?

Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, Alexander Vvedensky, Daniil Kharms, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Alejandro Jodorowsky, Fernando Arrabal, Václav Havel, and Edward Albee.

What is the stylistic origin of literary modernism?

The stylistic origins of literary modernism are traced back to 19th-century Europe.

What cultural phenomenon is identified as a primary origin for literary modernism?

The Industrial Revolution is identified as a primary cultural origin for literary modernism.

What are some of the subgenres or related movements within literary modernism listed in the infobox?

The infobox lists several subgenres and related movements, including Absurdism, Acmeism, Dada, Expressionism, Futurism, Imaginism, Imagism, Literary impressionism, Stream of consciousness, Surrealism, Symbolism, and Vorticism.

What are some of the 'local scenes' or groups associated with modernism?

Associated local scenes or groups include the Lost Generation, the Bloomsbury Group, the Harlem Renaissance, and the British Poetry Revival.

What connection did David Thorburn see between literary modernism and Impressionist painters like Claude Monet?

Literary modernist scholar David Thorburn saw connections between literary style and Impressionist painters like Claude Monet. He noted that modernist writers, like Monet's paintings of water lilies, suggested an awareness of art as art, rejected realistic interpretations, and dramatized 'a drive towards the abstract'.

What was the Imagist movement, and who founded it?

The Imagist movement, founded by Ezra Pound in 1912, was an early modernist poetic style characterized by a preference for precision in imagery, brevity, and the use of free verse.

How did the modernist movement address the perceived decay and fragmentation of Western culture?

Modernist writers like T. S. Eliot, in works such as 'The Waste Land,' used techniques like fragmented structure and the juxtaposition of disparate elements to convey the decay and fragmentation of Western culture, reflecting a sense of disillusionment and anarchy.

What is the significance of the 'mythical method' as described by T. S. Eliot in relation to modernism?

T. S. Eliot described the 'mythical method' as a way to bring order and significance to the chaos of contemporary history, suggesting it was a crucial development for art in the modern world. This method involves using mythic patterns to structure narratives, as seen in James Joyce's 'Ulysses'.

What is the general timeframe for 'late modernism' as discussed in the text?

The term 'late modernism' is sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930, and more recently, it has been used to refer to works written after 1945, acknowledging the impact of World War II and subsequent events on modernist ideology.

Which visual art movements are listed as being related to modernism?

Visual art movements related to modernism include Cubism, Dada, Expressionism, Fauvism, Futurism, Imagism, Neoplasticism (De Stijl), Orphism, Surrealism, Symbolism, and Vorticism.

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Origins and Defining Characteristics

A Break from Tradition

Literary modernism emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by a deliberate and self-conscious departure from traditional modes of writing in both poetry and prose. This movement championed experimentation in literary form and expression, encapsulated by Ezra Pound's famous directive: "Make it new."

Reshaping Sensibilities

Driven by a conscious desire to overturn established norms, modernism sought to articulate the novel sensibilities of its era. The profound human costs of World War I, in particular, led to a reassessment of prevailing societal assumptions, influencing much modernist writing to engage with the technological advancements and societal transformations of modernity.

A Response to Change

As noted by literary scholar Mary Ann Gillies, modernist themes often share the "centrality of a conscious break with the past," reflecting a complex, continent-spanning response to a rapidly changing world across various disciplines.

Philosophy, Symbol, and the Modernist Psyche

The Collapse of Certainty

W. B. Yeats's line, "Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold," often serves as a touchstone for modernism. Modernist writers frequently sought a metaphysical 'centre' or absolute truth, only to experience its fragmentation or collapse. This contrasts with postmodernism, which often celebrates this breakdown, exposing the inherent limitations of metaphysical claims.

Hume, Nietzsche, and Bergson

Philosophical shifts, tracing back to David Hume's skepticism about causality and the self, and Friedrich Nietzsche's emphasis on drives over facts, influenced this modernist sentiment. Henri Bergson's distinction between objective clock time and subjective, lived experience of time profoundly impacted novelists employing stream-of-consciousness techniques.

The Elusive Symbol

While Romantics sometimes perceived symbols as divine language, modernists, influenced by Symbolism, often emphasized the inscrutability and potential failure of symbols and metaphors. This led to a search for meaning that was often fraught with irony or a mystical yearning for non-rational understanding, as seen in the works of Wallace Stevens.

Roots and Influences

Psychological and Scientific Shifts

Early modernist thought was shaped by figures like Sigmund Freud, whose theories on the unconscious mind, and Ernst Mach, who questioned objective reality, provided new frameworks for understanding human experience. These ideas challenged the Victorian certainty in empirical knowledge.

Literary Forerunners

Key literary precursors include Fyodor Dostoevsky, whose psychological depth paved the way; Walt Whitman, with his innovative free verse; Gustave Flaubert, for his stylistic precision; and Charles Baudelaire and Arthur Rimbaud, for their exploration of urban alienation and symbolic language. Knut Hamsun and August Strindberg also contributed through their introspective and experimental narratives.

Key Artistic and Literary Movements

Visual Arts

Modernist literature shares common ground with visual arts movements like Cubism (Picasso, Braque), Fauvism (Matisse), Expressionism (Kandinsky, Kirchner), Dada (Duchamp), and Surrealism (Dalí, Magritte). These movements similarly broke from representational traditions, experimented with form, and explored subjective experience.

Picasso
Matisse
Kandinsky
Braque
Dalí
Magritte
Monet
Van Gogh
Mondrian
Klee

Music and Theatre

In music, atonality (Schoenberg) and rhythmic innovation (Stravinsky) mirrored literary experimentation. Theatre saw the rise of Expressionism (Strindberg) and the Theatre of the Absurd (Beckett, Ionesco), challenging conventional dramatic structures and exploring existential themes.

Music: Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Debussy, Bartók
Theatre: Strindberg, Ibsen, Beckett, Brecht, Pirandello

Literary Styles

Within literature, movements like Imagism (Pound, H.D.) emphasized precise imagery and free verse. Symbolism (Mallarmé, Yeats) explored the suggestive power of language. Futurism (Marinetti) celebrated technology and speed, while Dada and Surrealism embraced irrationality and the subconscious.

Imagism
Symbolism
Futurism
Dada
Surrealism
Expressionism
Stream of Consciousness

Pioneering Writers

Early Modernists

The early phase saw groundbreaking work from figures like Joseph Conrad, whose psychological realism influenced many. Alfred Jarry's absurdist play Ubu Roi predated much of the movement. Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio captured small-town psychology, while James Joyce's Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land became seminal modernist texts.

Joseph Conrad
Alfred Jarry
Sherwood Anderson
James Joyce
T. S. Eliot
Franz Kafka
Virginia Woolf
Knut Hamsun
Rainer Maria Rilke

Mid-Century Innovators

The 1920s and 1930s continued this trajectory with writers like Marcel Proust, William Faulkner, Virginia Woolf, and Luigi Pirandello. Their works explored memory, consciousness, and societal fragmentation with unprecedented depth and formal innovation.

Marcel Proust
William Faulkner
Virginia Woolf
Luigi Pirandello
Robert Musil
D. H. Lawrence
E. E. Cummings
Wallace Stevens

Landmark Works

Foundational Texts

Modernist literature is defined by its experimental forms and thematic depth. Works like Joyce's Ulysses, Eliot's The Waste Land, and Proust's In Search of Lost Time revolutionized narrative and poetic techniques, delving into the complexities of the human psyche and modern experience.

Ulysses (James Joyce)
The Waste Land (T. S. Eliot)
In Search of Lost Time (Marcel Proust)
The Metamorphosis (Franz Kafka)
Mrs Dalloway (Virginia Woolf)
The Magic Mountain (Thomas Mann)

Theatre and Beyond

Beyond novels and poetry, modernism profoundly impacted theatre, with plays like Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot epitomizing the Theatre of the Absurd. The movement's influence extended to film, music, and visual arts, creating a rich tapestry of interconnected artistic innovation.

Ubu Roi (Alfred Jarry)
Six Characters in Search of an Author (Luigi Pirandello)
The Threepenny Opera (Bertolt Brecht)
Waiting for Godot (Samuel Beckett)

Interdisciplinary Connections

Visual Arts

Modernist literature shares aesthetic principles with visual arts movements. Cubism's fragmentation, Fauvism's bold colors, and Surrealism's exploration of the subconscious found literary parallels in modernist techniques that broke with traditional representation and explored inner realities.

Cubism
Fauvism
Expressionism
Dada
Surrealism
Art Nouveau
Bauhaus

Music and Dance

Musical innovations like atonality (Schoenberg) and rhythmic experimentation (Stravinsky) echoed the literary avant-garde. Similarly, modern dance pioneers like Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham broke from classical ballet, emphasizing individual expression and natural movement, mirroring literary modernism's focus on subjective experience.

Atonality
Rhythmic Experimentation
Modern Dance
Ballets Russes

Film

Early cinema, particularly the Soviet Montage movement (Eisenstein, Pudovkin) and German Expressionism (Murnau, Lang), employed innovative editing, subjective perspectives, and thematic depth that aligned with modernist literary concerns, challenging traditional narrative forms.

Soviet Montage
German Expressionism
Surrealist Cinema
Film Noir

Enduring Legacy

Post-Modernism and Beyond

While the peak of modernism is often considered to have ended around 1939, its influence persisted. The subsequent postmodern movement reacted to, and built upon, modernist foundations, often by deconstructing modernist ideals or embracing the fragmentation that modernists grappled with.

Continued Relevance

Modernist techniques—stream of consciousness, fragmented narratives, unreliable narrators, and a focus on subjective experience—continue to inform contemporary literature. The movement's exploration of alienation, societal change, and the search for meaning remains profoundly relevant.

References

Source Material

Pound, Ezra, Make it New, Essays, London, 1935
Childs, Peter, Modernism, Routledge, 2008
Morley, Catherine, Modern American Literature, EDINBURGH University Press, 2012
Gillies, Mary Ann, Modernist Literature, Edinburgh University Press, 2007
Yeats, W. B., The Second Coming
Aylesworth, Gary, Postmodernism, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2015
Hume, David, A Treatise of Human Nature, Book I.iv, section 6
Erdinast-Vulcan, Daphne, Joseph Conrad and the Modern Temper, Oxford University Press, 1991
Peggy Guggenheim Collection website, "The Poet"
Kleinberg-Levin, David Michael, Wallace Stevens' Poetic Realism: The Only Possible Redemption, 2024
Gorodeisky, Keren, 19th Century Romantic Aesthetics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016
Richards, I.A., The Philosophy of Rhetoric, 1936
The Poetry Foundation, "Frost at Midnight"
Halmi, Nicholas, The Genealogy of the Romantic Symbol, 2007
Symons, Arthur, The symbolist movement in literature
Eliot, T. S., The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
Gooding-Williams, Robert, Nietzsche's Pursuit of Modernism, New German Critique, 1987
Collinson, Diané, Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference Guide
Williams, Linda R., The Twentieth Century, Bloomsbury, 1992
Merriam-Webster, Merriam Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature, 1995
Bossy, Michel-André, Artists, Writers, and Musicians: An Encyclopedia of People Who Changed the World, 2001
Pratt, William, The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature, 2001
Eliot, T. S., "Ulysses," Order and Myth, The Dial, 1923
Le parole e le cose, "Modernismo e poesia italiana del primo novecento", 2012
Dubnick, Randa K., The Structure of Obscurity: Gertrude Stein, Language, and Cubism, 1984
Dettmar, J. H., Modernism, The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, 2006
Oxford University Press, The Oxford Companion to English Literature
Greenberg, Clement, Modernism and Postmodernism, Arts, 1980
Hindrichs, Cheryl, Late Modernism, 1928–1945: Criticism and Theory, Literature Compass, 2011
Dickstein, Morris, An Outsider to His Own Life, The New York Times Book Review, 1997
Foster, John Wilson, The Cambridge Companion to Irish Literature, 2006
Mellors, Anthony, Late modernist poetics: From Pound to Prynne
Rauville, Camille de, Littératures francophones de l'océan Indien, 1990
Christophe, SOLIOZ, Les esclaves de Bourbon -la mer et la montagne, 2003
Hutchinson Encyclopedia, Millennium Edition, Helicon 1999
Arts.gla.ac.uk, "The Theatre Of The Absurd"

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References

I.A. Richards, The Philosophy of Rhetoric, (Oxford University Press: New York and London, 1936). Technically, Richards applies the terms 'vehicle' and 'tenor' to metaphor rather than symbol.

Robert Gooding-Williams, "Nietzsche's Pursuit of Modernism" New German Critique, No. 41, Special Issue on the Critiques of the Enlightenment. (Spring â Summer, 1987), pp. 95â108.

The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 108â9.

David Thorburn, MIT, The Great Courses, The Teaching Company, 2007, Masterworks of Early 20th-Century Literature, see p. 12 of guidebook Part I, Accessed August 24, 2013

Virginia Woolf. "Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown." Collected Essays. Ed. Leonard Woolf. Vol. 1. London: Hogarth, 1966. pages 319â337.

Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, p.311.

J. H. Dettmar "Modernism" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature ed. by David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006.

"modernism", The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Edited by Dinah Birch. Oxford University Press Inc. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.

The Cambridge Companion to Irish Literature, ed. John Wilson Foster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Late modernist poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony Mellors; see also Prynne's publisher, Bloodaxe Books.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Literary modernism Wikipedia page

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The Shifting Sands of Expression

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Origins and Defining Characteristics ⏳

🚀 A Break from Tradition

💥 Reshaping Sensibilities

🌍 A Response to Change

Philosophy, Symbol, and the Modernist Psyche 🧠

crumbling The Collapse of Certainty

🤔 Hume, Nietzsche, and Bergson

✨ The Elusive Symbol

Roots and Influences 🌱

🔬 Psychological and Scientific Shifts

📚 Literary Forerunners

Key Artistic and Literary Movements 🎨

🖼️ Visual Arts

🎶 Music and Theatre

📝 Literary Styles

Pioneering Writers ✍️

🌟 Early Modernists

🚀 Mid-Century Innovators

Landmark Works 📖

💡 Foundational Texts

🎭 Theatre and Beyond

Interdisciplinary Connections 🔗

🖼️ Visual Arts

🎶 Music and Dance

🎬 Film

Enduring Legacy 🏛️

🔮 Post-Modernism and Beyond

💡 Continued Relevance

References 📚

📜 Source Material

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Origins and Defining Characteristics

A Break from Tradition

Reshaping Sensibilities

A Response to Change

Philosophy, Symbol, and the Modernist Psyche

The Collapse of Certainty

Hume, Nietzsche, and Bergson

The Elusive Symbol

Roots and Influences

Psychological and Scientific Shifts

Literary Forerunners

Key Artistic and Literary Movements

Visual Arts

Music and Theatre

Literary Styles

Pioneering Writers

Early Modernists

Mid-Century Innovators

Landmark Works

Foundational Texts

Theatre and Beyond

Interdisciplinary Connections

Visual Arts

Music and Dance

Film

Enduring Legacy

Post-Modernism and Beyond

Continued Relevance

References

Source Material

Teacher's Corner

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Test Your Knowledge!

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References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice