Forging a Nation
A comprehensive exploration of the pivotal conflicts that secured Lithuania's sovereignty in the early 20th century.
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The Independence Wars
Defining the Conflicts
The Lithuanian Wars of Independence, also known as the Freedom Struggles, encompass three major conflicts Lithuania fought to defend its re-established independence following World War I. These wars were waged against Bolshevik forces, Bermontians, and Poland between December 1918 and November 1920.
Impact on Recognition
These protracted struggles significantly delayed the international recognition of Lithuania's restored independence and the full establishment of its civil institutions. The outcome of these wars was crucial for shaping the nascent Lithuanian state.
A Turbulent Era
Occurring at the end of World War I and amidst the Russian Civil War, these conflicts were part of a broader geopolitical upheaval in Eastern Europe. Lithuania found itself navigating complex relationships with its powerful neighbors.
Historical Context
Annexation and Revival
Following the Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was annexed by the Russian Empire. Throughout the 19th century, a Lithuanian National Revival movement gained momentum, advocating for the restoration of an independent nation-state within Lithuania's ethnic territories.
German Occupation
During World War I, German forces occupied Lithuanian territory from 1915. On February 16, 1918, the Council of Lithuania declared the re-establishment of an independent Lithuania, asserting its right to self-determination. While Germany initially acknowledged this declaration, its plans for satellite states in the region were disrupted by its defeat in the war.
Shifting Power Dynamics
With Germany signing an armistice in November 1918, control over Lithuania shifted. The first national government, led by Augustinas Voldemaras, was formed. However, an initial underestimation of the need for a military force proved unrealistic as conflicts soon erupted.
Forging the Army
Foundation of Defense
The legislative act creating the Lithuanian army was passed on November 23, 1918. However, the development of the army was hampered by a severe lack of funding, arms, ammunition, and experienced commanders.
Seeking Assistance
In late 1918, Lithuanian leaders sought assistance from Germany. Germany provided financial aid and support for the organization of the new army as its own troops withdrew. Volunteers were recruited, promised land, and formed the initial units.
Mobilization and Sacrifice
Mobilization began in March 1919, expanding the armed forces. By August 1919, the Lithuanian army numbered around 8,000 men. Tragically, during these battles, approximately 1,444 Lithuanian volunteers lost their lives, with thousands more injured or missing.
War Against the Bolsheviks
Soviet Ambitions
As the revolution spread, the Bolsheviks attempted to conquer Lithuania as part of their global proletarian revolution. They advanced from the east, aiming to establish Soviet power.
Key Engagements
Lithuanian forces, often supported by German volunteers, engaged the Red Army in several key battles, including near Kฤdainiai and Alytus. The first Lithuanian soldier, Povilas Lukลกys, and the first officer, Antanas Juozapaviฤius, fell in these early clashes.
Peace and Recognition
Lithuanian successes eventually pushed back the Bolshevik advance. On July 12, 1920, Lithuania signed a peace treaty with Soviet Russia, which recognized Lithuania's independence and its claims to the Vilnius Region. This treaty was crucial, though some historians argue Polish intervention in the Polish-Soviet War was vital in preventing a communist takeover of Lithuania.
War Against the Bermontians
The West Russian Volunteer Army
The Bermontians, formally the West Russian Volunteer Army led by Pavel Bermondt-Avalov, comprised a mixed force of Russian prisoners of war and German Freikorps members. Their agenda included retaining German influence and asserting Russian dominance.
Occupation and Resistance
Crossing into Lithuania in July 1919, the Bermontians occupied significant territories in western Lithuania, including ล iauliai and Radviliลกkis. They enforced Russian language use and engaged in looting, prompting local partisan resistance.
Decisive Victory
In November 1919, Lithuanian forces achieved a critical victory near Radviliลกkis, capturing significant war spoils, including aircraft and cannons. Intervention by an Entente representative led to the withdrawal of German troops, and by December 15, the Bermontians were completely expelled from Lithuania.
Conflict with Poland
Pre-existing Tensions
Lithuanian and Polish forces had already clashed in spring 1919. Tensions escalated significantly in summer 1920 when Polish forces, following their victory against the Soviets in the Battle of Warsaw, took Vilnius.
Suwaลki Agreement and Mutiny
A peace treaty was signed with Soviet Russia in July 1920, leading to the handover of Vilnius to Lithuania. However, on October 7, the Suwaลki Agreement was signed to establish peace, but before it could take effect, Polish General Lucjan ลปeligowski orchestrated a mutiny.
Seizure of Vilnius
ลปeligowski's forces quickly seized the Vilnius region on October 9, 1920. This action led to the separation of Lithuania's capital and surrounding territories, establishing the Republic of Central Lithuania. Lithuanian counteroffensives were halted by international intervention, solidifying Polish control over Vilnius.
ลฝeligowski's Mutiny
A Staged Event
Orchestrated by Polish Chief of State Jรณzef Piลsudski, the mutiny involved the 1st Lithuanian-Belarusian Division under General Lucjan ลปeligowski. This division, composed mainly of Poles but including Lithuanians and Belarusians, was ostensibly acting independently.
Offensive and Capture
The mutiny led to an offensive that captured Vilnius on October 9, 1920. Despite Lithuanian counterattacks, Polish forces, bolstered by the mutiny, maintained control. The subsequent offensive aimed towards Kaunas further solidified the territorial dispute.
International Reaction
The League of Nations intervened, halting further military actions. The mutiny and subsequent occupation of Vilnius created a lasting political dispute, with Kaunas serving as Lithuania's temporary capital for nearly two decades.
Klaipฤda Revolt
A Separate Struggle
While the main Wars of Independence focused on the eastern and southern borders, the Klaipฤda Region (Memelland) presented a different challenge. This territory, separated from Germany after WWI, was administered by the Allies pending a final decision.
Uprising for Unification
In January 1923, Lithuanian activists, with covert support from the Lithuanian government, launched an uprising known as the Klaipฤda Revolt. The goal was to integrate the region into Lithuania.
Successful Integration
The revolt was successful, leading to the region's incorporation into Lithuania. This event, though distinct from the earlier wars, was crucial for consolidating Lithuania's territorial integrity and national aspirations.
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References
References
- Alfred Erich Senn, Lietuvos valstybรยs... p. 163: "If the Poles didn't stop the Soviet attack, Lithuania would fell to the Soviets... Polish victory costs the Lithuanians the city of Wilno, but saved Lithuania itself."
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