Who was Maimonides, and by what other names was he known?

Maimonides, whose full name was Moses ben Maimon, was a Sephardic rabbi and philosopher, recognized as one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars of the Middle Ages. He was also a preeminent astronomer and physician, serving as Saladin's personal physician. He is also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam, which stands for 'Our Rabbi, Moshe son of Maimon,' and sometimes by the nickname 'The Great Eagle'.

When and where was Maimonides born, and what were the circumstances of his early life?

Maimonides was born on Passover eve in either 1138 or 1135 in Córdoba, located in al-Andalus (modern-day Spain) within the Muslim-ruled Almoravid Caliphate. This period marked the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula. His father, Maimon ben Joseph, was a rabbinic judge, and Maimonides studied Torah under him, developing an early interest in sciences and philosophy through ancient Greek philosophy accessible via Arabic translations and Islamic culture.

What significant event led to Maimonides' family's exile from Córdoba?

Maimonides' family was forced into exile from Córdoba in 1148 after the Almohad Caliphate conquered the city. The Almohads abolished the 'dhimmi' status, which provided state protection for non-Muslims in exchange for a tax, compelling Jewish and Christian communities to choose between converting to Islam, facing death, or going into exile. Maimonides' family, like many other Jews, chose exile.

Where did Maimonides reside during his period of exile before settling in Egypt?

After being exiled from Córdoba, Maimonides spent ten years moving through southern Spain and North Africa, eventually settling in Fez, Morocco. Following this, he lived in Acre with his father and brother before finally settling in Fustat, Egypt, by 1168, though some accounts suggest he first settled in Alexandria and moved to Fustat in 1171.

What major work did Maimonides compose during his sojourn in Morocco?

During his time in Morocco, specifically between 1166 and 1168, Maimonides composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah. This was the first full commentary ever written on the entire Mishnah, taking him seven years to complete.

How did Maimonides contribute to the Jewish community shortly after settling in Egypt?

Shortly after settling in Egypt, Maimonides played a crucial role in rescuing Jews who had been taken captive during the Christian Amalric of Jerusalem's siege of Bilbeis, a town in the southeastern Nile Delta. He sent five letters to Jewish communities in Lower Egypt, urging them to pool funds for ransom, which led to the successful release of the captives.

What personal tragedy deeply affected Maimonides and influenced his career path?

Maimonides suffered a profound personal tragedy with the death of his youngest brother, David ben Maimon, a merchant. David drowned at sea between 1169 and 1177 while on a business venture to India, carrying significant family funds. This loss caused Maimonides to fall ill with grief for about a year, leading him to assume the vocation of a physician to support his family.

What was the 'Nagid' position, and how did Maimonides come to hold it?

The 'Nagid' was the revered head of the Egyptian Jewish community. Maimonides was initially appointed to this position around 1171, likely due to the leadership he demonstrated during the ransoming of Crusader captives. Although he was temporarily replaced by Sar Shalom ben Moses in 1173, Maimonides was re-appointed as Nagid in 1195 after a period of conflict, during which Sar Shalom was accused of tax farming.

What was Maimonides' role as a physician, and who were his notable patients?

Maimonides became a renowned physician, having trained in medicine in both Spain and Fez. He was appointed court physician to al-Qadi al-Fadil, Saladin's chief secretary, and subsequently to Saladin himself. After Saladin's death, he continued to serve as a physician to the Ayyubid dynasty.

What were some of Maimonides' key medical philosophies and practices?

Maimonides emphasized moderation and a healthy lifestyle in his medical writings. He was knowledgeable about Greek and Arabic medicine, following the principles of humorism in the tradition of Galen, but he also relied on his own observation and experience rather than blindly accepting authority. He also displayed intercultural awareness and respect for patient autonomy in his interactions.

How did Maimonides manage his extensive writing alongside his demanding medical practice?

Despite a relentlessly active life as a physician, often working until evening and receiving community members even on Shabbat, Maimonides managed to write extended treatises. He frequently expressed a longing for solitude to pursue his reflections, which he considered essential for prophetic experience, yet dedicated most of his time to caring for others.

When and where did Maimonides die, and what is known about his burial?

Maimonides died on December 12, 1204, in Fustat, Egypt. According to Jewish tradition and various medieval sources, his body was interred near Lake Tiberias in the Upper Galilee, where his tomb is now a popular pilgrimage site. His gravestone bears the epitaph, 'From Moses to Moses arose none like Moses'.

What is the 'Mishneh Torah,' and what was its primary purpose?

The 'Mishneh Torah' is a fourteen-volume code of Jewish law composed by Maimonides, also known as 'Yad ha-Chazaka' or simply 'Yad' (meaning 'hand' and having the numerical value 14). Its primary purpose was to gather all binding laws from the Talmud and incorporate the positions of the Geonim, making Jewish law easier to understand and follow for the Jews of his time.

How did the 'Mishneh Torah' influence later Jewish legal codes?

The 'Mishneh Torah' heavily influenced later codes of Jewish law, such as 'Arba'ah Turim' by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and 'Shulchan Aruch' by Rabbi Yosef Karo, both of which often quoted entire sections verbatim. Despite initial opposition, it was recognized as a monumental contribution to the systematized writing of Halakha and its decisions have significantly impacted later rulings.

What was the initial reception of the 'Mishneh Torah,' and who were its main critics?

The 'Mishneh Torah' initially faced significant opposition, primarily because Maimonides had omitted references for brevity and, in his introduction, gave the impression of wanting to 'cut out' the study of the Talmud to arrive at legal conclusions. His most forceful opponents were the rabbis of Provence (Southern France), and notably, Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III), whose critiques are often printed in editions of the work.

What legal maxim is attributed to Maimonides regarding judicial certainty?

Maimonides is credited with the legal maxim: 'It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death.' He argued that executing a defendant without absolute certainty would lead to a dangerous erosion of proof standards, potentially resulting in convictions based solely on a judge's whim.

What are the three philosophical introductions included in Maimonides' 'Commentary on the Mishnah'?

Maimonides' 'Commentary on the Mishnah' includes three influential philosophical introductions: the 'Introduction to the Mishnah,' which discusses the nature of oral law, the distinction between prophet and sage, and the Mishnah's structure; the 'Introduction to Mishnah Sanhedrin, chapter ten' (Pereḳ Ḥeleḳ), an eschatological essay concluding with his 'thirteen principles of faith'; and the 'Introduction to Pirkei Avot,' popularly known as 'The Eight Chapters,' which is an ethical treatise.

What is 'The Guide for the Perplexed,' and what was its main objective?

'The Guide for the Perplexed' is a philosophical work written by Maimonides in Judeo-Arabic, completed between 1186 and 1190. Its main objective was to harmonize and differentiate Aristotle's philosophy with Jewish theology, striving to reconcile Aristotelianism and science with the teachings of the Torah.

Which of Maimonides' medical works was composed for Saladin's son, and what was its historical significance?

Maimonides composed his 'Guide to Good Health' (Regimen Sanitatis) in Arabic for Sultan al-Afdal, Saladin's son, who suffered from depression. This work was later translated into Latin and published in Florence in 1477, becoming the first medical book to appear in print there.

What enduring ideas from Maimonides' medical writings remain relevant today?

While some of his specific medical prescriptions may be outdated, Maimonides' ideas about preventive medicine, public hygiene, his compassionate approach to suffering patients, and the preservation of the health of the soul continue to be relevant in modern medical discourse.

How did Maimonides influence Scholastic philosophers?

Through 'The Guide for the Perplexed' and the philosophical introductions in his Mishnah commentaries, Maimonides significantly influenced Scholastic philosophers such as Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. He was considered a Jewish Scholastic who sought to reconcile Aristotelianism and science with the teachings of the Torah.

What are Maimonides' '13 principles of faith,' and where were they first formulated?

Maimonides formulated his '13 principles of faith' in his commentary on the Mishnah, specifically in Tractate Sanhedrin, chapter 10. These principles summarize what he considered the required beliefs of Judaism, including the existence, unity, spirituality, and eternity of God, revelation through prophets (with Moses as preeminent), the divine origin and permanence of the Torah, God's awareness of human actions, reward and punishment, the coming of the Jewish Messiah, and the resurrection of the dead.

What was the initial reception of Maimonides' '13 principles of faith,' and how did their status evolve?

When first proposed, Maimonides' '13 principles of faith' were controversial and met with criticism from rabbis like Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, and were largely ignored by much of the Jewish community for centuries. However, they eventually became widely accepted and are now considered cardinal principles of faith for Orthodox Jews, with poetic restatements like 'Ani Ma'amin' and 'Yigdal' canonized in many Jewish prayer books.

How did Maimonides reconcile the existence of an omnipotent and good God with the presence of evil in the world?

Maimonides addressed the problem of evil by postulating that evil is not a creation of God but rather the absence of good. He argued that all good is a divine invention, and evil exists where good is lacking. He also contended that if one views the universe as a whole, good significantly outweighs evil, and that most evil stems from human actions driven by physical desires, which can be prevented by learning to control bodily urges.

What was Maimonides' stance on astrology?

Maimonides was skeptical of astrology, asserting that one should only believe what can be supported by rational proof, sensory evidence, or trustworthy authority. He stated that he had studied astrology and found it undeserving of being called a science, ridiculing the idea that a person's fate could be determined by constellations, as this would strip life of purpose and make humans slaves to destiny.

What distinction did Maimonides draw between 'true beliefs' and 'necessary beliefs'?

In 'The Guide for the Perplexed,' Maimonides distinguished between 'true beliefs,' which lead to intellectual perfection, and 'necessary beliefs,' which are important for maintaining social order. He categorized anthropomorphic statements about God, such as God becoming 'angry,' as necessary beliefs. He believed God does not possess human passions, but such beliefs are crucial for people to desist from wrongdoing.

Describe Maimonides' eight-level hierarchy of 'tzedakah' (charity).

Maimonides outlined an eight-level hierarchy of 'tzedakah,' with the highest form being to provide a gift, loan, or partnership that enables the recipient to become self-sufficient, rather than relying on others. The lowest form is giving begrudgingly. Other levels include giving cheerfully but less than one should, giving after being asked, giving before being asked, giving when the recipient knows the donor but not vice versa, giving when the donor knows the recipient but not vice versa, and giving when neither party knows the other's identity.

What was Maimonides' view on the 'World to Come' and its relation to bodily resurrection?

Maimonides believed in the immortality of the soul for those with perfected intellect, describing the 'World to Come' as a purely spiritual state of eternal life after the Messianic Era, where souls exist without bodies and enjoy the Divine Presence without physical needs. He clarified that while bodily resurrection is a fundamental truth of Judaism, it is not permanent or universal, and resurrected individuals would eventually die again, occurring at an indeterminate time before the purely spiritual 'World to Come'.

How did Maimonides' rationalism interact with Kabbalah?

Maimonides was not known as a supporter of Kabbalah, though some intellectual mysticism is noted in his philosophy. He intended to conceal the esoteric meanings of Torah ('Sod') from the average reader. While some view his Aristotelianism as an alternative to Kabbalah, others suggest his rationalism helped purify Kabbalistic teachings from mistaken corporeal interpretations, even though Kabbalists believed their theosophy offered unique access to Divine mysteries.

What is the significance of the saying, 'From Moses to Moses arose none like Moses,' in relation to Maimonides?

The popular medieval saying, which also served as Maimonides' epitaph, 'From Mosheh [of the Torah] to Mosheh [Maimonides] there was none like Mosheh,' primarily refers to his unparalleled contributions in rabbinic writings. It highlights his exceptional status as a codifier of Jewish law and ethics, whose logical construction and clear expression set a new standard.

How did Maimonides' philosophical approach impact later Jewish thought and lead to controversy?

Maimonides' adaptation of Aristotelian thought to Biblical faith profoundly influenced later Jewish thinkers. However, some Jews in the century following his death, particularly in Spain, applied his Aristotelianism in ways that challenged traditional beliefs and observance, sparking an intellectual controversy known as the Maimonidean Controversy. This debate even led to interventions by the Catholic Church and confiscation of rabbinic texts.

What was Hasdai Crescas's critique of Maimonides?

Hasdai Crescas offered a rigorous medieval critique of Maimonides in his work 'Or Adonai.' Crescas challenged the certainty of the Aristotelian worldview, not only in religious matters but also in fundamental areas of medieval science like physics and geometry, thereby opposing the eclectic trend that Maimonides represented.

How has Maimonides been memorialized in modern times?

Maimonides has been memorialized in numerous ways, including naming learning communities (e.g., Tufts University School of Medicine), various schools (e.g., Maimonides School in Brookline, MA, Lycée Maïmonide in Casablanca), and medical centers (e.g., Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, NY) after him. He was also featured on the 1 Israeli New Shekel banknote from 1986 to 1995, and conferences and exhibits have been held to commemorate his legacy.

What was Maimonides' view on character development and free will?

Maimonides believed that while a person's innate disposition along an ethical and emotional spectrum might be influenced by external factors, human beings possess free will to choose behaviors that build character. He taught that individuals should identify antisocial traits and consciously strive to act in the opposite manner, for instance, an arrogant person practicing humility. He also advised relocating if one's environment made ethical behavior impossible.

What was the role of Maimonides' son, Abraham Maimonides, in his legacy?

Maimonides' son, Abraham Maimonides, was his only child to survive into adulthood and became a recognized great scholar. He succeeded his father as Nagid (head of the Jewish community) and as court physician at the age of eighteen. Throughout his career, Abraham defended his father's writings against critics, and the office of Nagid remained within the Maimonides family for four successive generations.

What languages did Maimonides primarily use for his works?

Most of Maimonides' works were written in Judeo-Arabic, which is Arabic written using the Hebrew alphabet. However, his monumental legal code, the 'Mishneh Torah,' was written in Hebrew.

What is the 'Epistle to Yemen,' and when was it written?

The 'Epistle to Yemen' (Iggereth Teiman) is a famous letter written by Maimonides between 1172 and 1174. It was addressed to the oppressed Jewish community of Yemen, offering guidance and encouragement during a time of persecution and false messianic claims.

What was Maimonides' view on the purpose of ritual sacrifices in the Torah?

Maimonides argued that the commandments in the Torah, particularly those pertaining to sacrifices, were intended to help wean the Israelites away from idolatry. He saw them as a means to guide people towards a purer form of worship and understanding of God.

How did Maimonides describe God's nature in his theology?

In his theology, Maimonides equated the God of Abraham with the Necessary Being. He argued that God embodies reason, intellect, science, and nature, and is omnipotent and indescribable. He also adhered to apophatic theology, describing God through negative attributes (e.g., God is not non-existent, God is not ignorant) rather than positive ones, to emphasize God's absolute uniqueness and incorporeality.

What was the 'India Trade' that Maimonides' brother David was involved in?

The 'India Trade' was a highly lucrative business venture during the 11th-13th centuries, in which Jewish merchants from Egypt, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East engaged in importing and exporting goods, such as pepper and brass, from various ports along the Malabar Coast. Maimonides' brother, David, invested family savings in this trade, hoping to increase their wealth.

What is the significance of the bas relief of Maimonides in the United States House of Representatives?

The bas relief of Maimonides in the United States House of Representatives serves as a tribute to his enduring legacy and influence, acknowledging him as a significant historical figure whose philosophical and legal contributions have had a lasting impact on civilization.

What is the 'Oath of Maimonides,' and is its authorship confirmed?

The 'Oath of Maimonides' is a document related to the medical calling, often recited as an alternative to the Hippocratic Oath. However, its authorship by Maimonides is not confirmed; it, along with a more lengthy 'Prayer of Maimonides,' may have been written later, with the 'Prayer' first appearing in print in 1793 and attributed to Markus Herz.

How did Maimonides view the relationship between divine revelation and human reason in philosophy?

Maimonides' philosophical activity was inspired by the fundamental tenet that there can be no contradiction between the truths revealed by God and the discoveries of the human mind through science and philosophy. He sought to demonstrate how the teachings of the Torah could be reconciled with and even find a basis in the science of Aristotle and the teachings of the Talmud.

What was the purpose of the 2008 Euromed Conference project related to Maimonides?

In March 2008, during the Euromed Conference of Ministers of Tourism, the Tourism Ministries of Israel, Morocco, and Spain agreed to a joint project. This initiative aimed to trace the footsteps of Maimonides, thereby boosting religious tourism in the cities of Córdoba, Fez, and Tiberias, which were significant locations in his life.

What is the 'Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates' by Maimonides?

Maimonides' 'Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates' is a medical work where he interspersed his own views with his commentary on Hippocrates' extensive writings. This demonstrates his approach of not blindly accepting authority but integrating his own observations and experiences.

What is the 'Glossary of Drug Names' by Maimonides?

The 'Glossary of Drug Names' is one of Maimonides' medical works, functioning as a pharmacopeia. It contains 405 paragraphs listing the names of drugs in multiple languages, including Arabic, Greek, Syrian, Persian, Berber, and Spanish, reflecting his broad knowledge and the multicultural medical context of his time.

What was Maimonides' perspective on the origin of Greek knowledge and rabbinical knowledge of mathematics?

Maimonides did not believe that Greek knowledge originated with the Jews. However, he thought that ancient sages and Solomon possessed scientific and philosophical knowledge, though he believed those specific books had not survived to his era. He also noted that rabbinical knowledge of mathematics was imperfect because it was acquired from contemporary men of science, rather than through divinely inspired prophecy.

How did Maimonides distinguish between material and immaterial intelligence in humans?

Maimonides distinguished two types of intelligence in humans: material intelligence, which is dependent on and influenced by the body, and immaterial intelligence, which is independent of the bodily organism. He saw the latter as a direct emanation from the universal active intellect, acquired through the soul's efforts to gain correct knowledge of God.

What did Maimonides believe about the path to human happiness and immortality?

Maimonides believed that the knowledge of God develops immaterial intelligence, conferring a spiritual nature on humans and leading to the perfection in which human happiness consists. This process also endows the soul with immortality, allowing individuals to achieve their own salvation and eternal existence by attaining a correct knowledge of God.

What was the significance of Maimonides' visit to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem?

Maimonides visited the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, and he recorded this day as a day of holiness for himself and his descendants. This highlights his deep connection to Jewish tradition and the spiritual significance he attributed to the holy site.

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Essence

A Towering Intellect

Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), universally known as Maimonides or by the Hebrew acronym Rambam, stands as one of the most prolific and influential Torah scholars, philosophers, and physicians of the Middle Ages. His intellectual prowess spanned diverse fields, earning him recognition as a preeminent polymath in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds.

A Global Scholar

Born in Córdoba, within the Almoravid Empire (modern-day Spain), Maimonides' life journey took him through Morocco and ultimately to Egypt, where he became the revered head of the Jewish community. His writings on Jewish law and ethics garnered widespread acclaim, reaching communities as distant as Iraq and Yemen, solidifying his posthumous acknowledgment as a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship.

Bridging Traditions

Deeply influenced by the philosophical traditions of Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and his contemporary Ibn Rushd, Maimonides embarked on a profound intellectual project: to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and scientific inquiry with the foundational teachings of the Torah. This synthesis marked a significant contribution to medieval thought, demonstrating a harmonious relationship between faith and reason.

Life

Early Years & Education

Maimonides was born in 1138 (or possibly 1135) in Córdoba, a vibrant center of learning in al-Andalus. His father, Maimon ben Joseph, a rabbinic judge, served as his primary Torah instructor, having himself studied under Joseph ibn Migash. From an early age, Maimonides displayed a keen interest in sciences and philosophy, engaging deeply with ancient Greek philosophy through Arabic translations and immersing himself in the rich intellectual currents of Islamic culture.

Exile & Resilience

The Almohad conquest of Córdoba in 1148 brought an end to the golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula, forcing Jewish and Christian communities to choose between conversion, death, or exile. Maimonides' family, like many others, chose exile, embarking on a decade of movement across southern Spain and North Africa before settling in Fez, Morocco. It was during this period of displacement (1166–1168) that he composed his seminal *Commentary on the Mishnah*.

After his sojourn in Morocco, Maimonides and his family resided briefly in Acre before establishing themselves in Fustat, Egypt, by 1168 (some accounts suggest Alexandria first, then Fustat in 1171). While in Cairo, he studied at a yeshiva that now bears his name. A poignant moment in his travels included a visit to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, which he regarded as a day of profound holiness for himself and his descendants.

Maimonides also played a critical role in humanitarian efforts, notably assisting in the rescue of Jews captured during Amalric of Jerusalem's siege of Bilbeis. He rallied Jewish communities in Lower Egypt to pool resources for ransom, successfully securing the release of the captives.

Personal Adversity & Public Service

A profound personal tragedy struck Maimonides with the death of his younger brother, David ben Maimon, who drowned at sea between 1169 and 1177 while on a merchant voyage to India, carrying the family's savings. This loss plunged Maimonides into a year-long period of severe grief and depression. Despite this immense personal suffering, he dedicated himself to public service, eventually being appointed Nagid (head of the Egyptian Jewish community) around 1171, a position he reclaimed in 1195 after a period of controversy.

The Royal Physician

Following his brother's death and the depletion of family funds, Maimonides embraced the vocation of medicine, a field in which he had trained in Spain and Fez. His medical expertise quickly gained widespread recognition, leading to his appointment as court physician, first to al-Qadi al-Fadil, Sultan Saladin's chief secretary, and subsequently to Saladin himself. He continued to serve the Ayyubid dynasty after Saladin's passing. His daily life was a demanding balance of treating patients, writing prescriptions, and engaging in profound scholarly work, often extending late into the evening.

Demise & Legacy

Maimonides passed away on December 12, 1204, in Fustat, Egypt. Though medieval sources suggest his body was interred near Lake Tiberias, contemporary evidence for this removal is scarce. Today, his tomb in Tiberias remains a significant pilgrimage site, bearing the famous epitaph: "From Moses to Moses arose none like Moses." His son, Abraham Maimonides, a scholar in his own right, succeeded him as Nagid and court physician, continuing the family's legacy for four generations.

Writings

Mishneh Torah

The *Mishneh Torah* is a monumental fourteen-volume code of Jewish law, also known as *Yad ha-Chazaka* or simply *Yad* (numerical value 14). Maimonides meticulously compiled and systematized all binding laws from the Talmud, integrating the positions of the Geonim. This work aimed to simplify the complex body of Jewish rules and regulations for his contemporaries. Despite initial opposition due to its brevity and perceived challenge to Talmudic study, it became a cornerstone of *halakha*, heavily influencing later codes like *Arba'ah Turim* and *Shulchan Aruch*. Rabbi Yosef Karo famously defended its canonical authority, stating, "Who would dare force communities who follow the Rambam to follow any other decisor... The Rambam is the greatest of the decisors."

A notable legal maxim from the *Mishneh Torah* states: "It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death." Maimonides argued that executing a defendant without absolute certainty would lead to a dangerous erosion of evidentiary standards, ultimately resulting in arbitrary convictions.

Commentary on the Mishnah

Written in Classical Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet (*Kitab al-Siraj*, translated as *Pirush Hamishnayot*), this was the first comprehensive commentary on the entire Mishnah, a seven-year endeavor. It gained immense popularity and influence, particularly through its three philosophical introductions:

Introduction to the Mishnah: Explores the nature of oral law, the distinction between prophet and sage, and the Mishnah's organizational structure.
Introduction to Mishnah Sanhedrin, Chapter Ten (*Perek Chelek*): An eschatological essay culminating in Maimonides' renowned "thirteen principles of faith."
Introduction to Pirkei Avot (*The Eight Chapters*): An ethical treatise offering profound insights into moral character development.

The Guide for the Perplexed

This philosophical masterpiece, originally titled *Dalalat al-Ha'irin* in Judeo-Arabic, was completed between 1186 and 1190. It sought to harmonize and differentiate Aristotelian philosophy from Jewish theology, often explaining the rationale behind Torah's statutory provisions within their historical context. While highly controversial in its time, even leading to its banning and burning by some French rabbis, *The Guide* profoundly influenced Scholastic philosophers and remains a cornerstone of Jewish philosophical thought. Its first Hebrew translation by Samuel ibn Tibbon appeared just before Maimonides' death in 1204.

Other Judaic Works

Maimonides' extensive literary output also includes:

*Sefer Hamitzvot* (*The Book of Commandments*): A systematic enumeration of the 613 *mitzvot* (commandments) traditionally found in the Torah, guided by fourteen foundational principles (*shorashim*).
*Sefer Ha'shamad* (*Letter of Martyrdom*): A significant public letter addressing the challenges of forced conversion.
*Teshuvot*: A collection of his correspondence and responsa, including public letters on topics such as resurrection, the afterlife, and conversion, notably *Iggereth Teiman* (Epistle to Yemen), addressed to the oppressed Jewish community of Yemen.
*Hilkhot ha-Yerushalmi*: A surviving fragment of a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud.
Commentaries to the Babylonian Talmud: Fragments of which also survive, demonstrating his deep engagement with rabbinic literature.

Healing

Medical Treatises

Maimonides' contributions to medicine were widely recognized in his era. His medical writings, primarily in Arabic, were later translated into contemporary English by Fred Rosner. These treatises were influential for generations of physicians, showcasing his deep knowledge of Greek and Arabic medicine while also emphasizing his own observations and experience, rather than blindly accepting authority. His ideas on preventive medicine, public hygiene, a compassionate approach to suffering patients, and the preservation of the health of the soul remain remarkably relevant.

*Guide to Good Health* (*Regimen Sanitatis*): Composed for Sultan al-Afdal, Saladin's son, who suffered from depression. This work, translated into Latin, became the first medical book printed in Florence in 1477.
*The Art of Cure – Extracts from Galen*: An essential compilation of Galen's extensive writings.
*Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates*: Interspersed with Maimonides' unique perspectives.
*Medical Aphorisms of Moses* (*Fusul Musa*): Contains 1500 aphorisms describing numerous medical conditions.
*Treatise on Hemorrhoids*: Discusses digestion and dietary influences.
*Treatise on Cohabitation*: Includes formulations for aphrodisiacs and anti-aphrodisiacs.
*Treatise on Asthma*: Emphasizes the impact of climates, diets, and the necessity of clean air on respiratory health.
*Treatise on Poisons and Their Antidotes*: An early and enduringly popular toxicology textbook.
*Regimen of Health*: A discourse on holistic healthy living and the profound connection between mind and body.
*Discourse on the Explanation of Fits*: Advocates for healthy living and moderation to avoid excess.
*Glossary of Drug Names*: A comprehensive pharmacopeia listing 405 drugs with their names in Arabic, Greek, Syrian, Persian, Berber, and Spanish.

The Oath & Prayer

While often attributed to Maimonides, *The Oath of Maimonides* (a document on the medical calling, sometimes recited as a substitute for the Hippocratic Oath) and the more extensive *Prayer of Maimonides* are believed to have been composed later. The *Prayer* first appeared in print in 1793 and is attributed to Markus Herz, a German physician and student of Immanuel Kant. These texts, regardless of their precise authorship, reflect the profound ethical and spiritual dimensions associated with Maimonides' medical legacy.

Reason

Treatise on Logic

Maimonides' *Treatise on Logic* (*Maqala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantiq*) has seen numerous printings and translations across Latin, German, French, and English. This work elucidates the fundamental principles of Aristotelian logic, drawing heavily from the teachings of prominent Islamic philosophers, particularly Al-Farabi, whom Maimonides regarded as "the Second Master" after Aristotle. The treatise systematically inventories and explains the technical lexicon used by logicians, proceeding rationally through a lexicon of philosophical terms to a summary of higher philosophical topics across its fourteen chapters, a number often recurring in Maimonides' works.

Historically, it was widely accepted that Maimonides authored the *Treatise on Logic* in his youth. However, some contemporary scholars, such as Herbert Davidson, have raised questions regarding its authorship, citing reports of Arabic manuscripts unavailable to Western researchers. Conversely, Rabbi Yosef Kafih, a prominent Maimonidean scholar, firmly maintained Maimonides' authorship and provided a new Hebrew translation from the Judeo-Arabic original, titled *Beiur M'lekhet HaHiggayon*.

Thought

Scholastic Influence

Through *The Guide for the Perplexed* and his philosophical introductions to the Mishnah, Maimonides exerted a profound influence on the development of Scholastic philosophy. His work was particularly impactful on major Christian Scholastics such as Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. As a Jewish Scholastic, Maimonides' intellectual framework was shaped by extensive engagement with Arab Muslim philosophers and the doctrines of Aristotle. His central philosophical endeavor was to demonstrate the compatibility and inherent harmony between Aristotelian science and the revealed truths of the Torah.

Faith & Reason

A fundamental tenet guiding Maimonides' philosophical activity, mirroring that of Scholasticism, was the conviction that no inherent contradiction could exist between divine revelation and the rational conclusions derived from human scientific and philosophical inquiry. He meticulously employed Aristotelian science and Talmudic teachings, frequently illustrating how the latter found a rational basis within the former. This approach, while revolutionary, also sparked significant debate and controversy in his time, particularly concerning the interpretation of religious texts.

Creed

The Thirteen Principles of Faith

In his *Commentary on the Mishnah* (Tractate Sanhedrin, chapter 10), Maimonides articulated his "Thirteen Principles of Faith," which he considered the essential and required beliefs of Judaism. These principles, compiled from various Talmudic sources, provided a systematic theological framework for Jewish belief.

The existence of God.
God's unity and indivisibility into elements.
God's spirituality and incorporeality.
God's eternity.
God alone should be the object of worship.
Revelation through God's prophets.
The preeminence of Moses among the prophets.
That the entire Torah (both the Written and Oral law) are of Divine origin and were dictated to Moses by God on Mt. Sinai.
The Torah given by Moses is permanent and will not be replaced or changed.
God's awareness of all human actions and thoughts.
Reward of righteousness and punishment of evil.
The coming of the Jewish Messiah.
The resurrection of the dead.

Reception & Canonization

Initially, Maimonides' Thirteen Principles were met with considerable controversy and criticism from other prominent rabbis, such as Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, and were largely overlooked by much of the Jewish community for several centuries. However, over time, these principles gained widespread acceptance and are now considered the cardinal tenets of faith for Orthodox Jews. Their enduring significance is evident in their poetic restatements, *Ani Ma'amin* and *Yigdal*, which have been canonized and are recited in many editions of the *Siddur* (Jewish prayer book).

The absence of an explicit list of these principles in his later magnum opuses, the *Mishneh Torah* and *The Guide for the Perplexed*, has led to scholarly debate. Some suggest that Maimonides may have retracted his earlier prescriptive stance, while others argue that the principles are descriptive of fundamental beliefs rather than a rigid, mandatory creed, integrated implicitly within his broader philosophical and legal framework.

Divine

The Necessary Being

Maimonides posited the God of Abraham as the "Necessary Being," unique and singular in the universe. He interpreted the Torah's command to love and fear God (Deuteronomy 10:12) as an imperative to contemplate God's creations, marveling at the inherent order and wisdom. This intellectual and spiritual engagement, he argued, naturally leads to a profound love for God and a humble recognition of humanity's place in the cosmos, forming the very foundation of Torah observance.

Apophatic Theology

A key aspect of Maimonides' theology is his adherence to apophatic theology, or negative theology. This approach seeks to describe God not by what He "is," but by what He "is not." For instance, instead of stating "God is wise," one asserts "God is not ignorant," implying a form of knowledge without anthropomorphizing the divine. Similarly, rather than "God is One," one states "there is no multiplicity in God's being," emphasizing absolute unity. This method aims to express knowledge of God while preserving His transcendence and avoiding any corporeal or limited descriptions.

Reason & Revelation

Maimonides adamantly argued against any corporeal depiction of God, insisting that all anthropomorphic language in sacred texts must be interpreted metaphorically. This stance was central to his understanding of idolatry. He further contended that many commandments, particularly those concerning sacrifices, were designed to gradually steer the Israelites away from idolatrous practices. For Maimonides, God embodied pure reason, intellect, science, and nature, being omnipotent and ultimately indescribable. He viewed the pursuit of science and the discovery of the unknown through understanding nature as a profound way to appreciate the Divine.

Virtue

Cultivating Character

Maimonides dedicated significant thought to the development of moral character. He recognized that while individuals possess innate dispositions along ethical and emotional spectra, human beings are endowed with free will. This free will empowers individuals to consciously choose behaviors that cultivate and refine their character, moving towards a more virtuous existence. He emphasized that "One is obligated to conduct his affairs with others in a gentle and pleasing manner," highlighting the importance of interpersonal ethics.

The Path of Rectification

For those grappling with antisocial character traits, Maimonides prescribed a deliberate and active path of rectification. He advised individuals to first identify these undesirable traits and then consciously strive to behave in the exact opposite manner. For example, an arrogant person should actively practice humility, consistently choosing actions and attitudes that reflect modesty. This rigorous self-discipline, he believed, was essential for achieving moral balance and spiritual growth.

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References

This view is not always consistent throughout Maimonides' work; in Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah, chapters 2â4, Maimonides describes angels that are actually created beings.

1138 in Stroumsa, Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker, Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 8

Stroumsa, Maimonides in His World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker, Princeton University Press, 2009, p.65

Click to see full English translation of Maimonides' "Epistle to Yemen"

Moses Maimonides, The Commandments, Neg. Comm. 290, at 269â71 (Charles B. Chavel trans., 1967).

Published here; see discussion here.

See, for example: Marc B. Shapiro. The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised. Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (2011). pp. 1â14.

Abraham Heschel, Maimonides (New York: Farrar Straus, 1982), Chapter 15, "Meditation on God," pp. 157â162.

Isidore Twersky, Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Yale Judaica Series, vol. XII (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980), passim, and especially Chapter VII, "Epilogue," pp. 515â38.

This is covered in all histories of the Jews. E.g., including such a brief overview as Cecil Roth, A History of the Jews, Revised Edition (New York: Schocken, 1970), pp. 175â179.

D.J. Silver, Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy, 1180â1240 (Leiden: Brill, 1965), is still the most detailed account.

David Hartman, Maimonides: Torah and Philosophic Quest (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1976), p. 98.

Vivian McAlister, Maimonides's cooling period and organ retrieval (Canadian Journal of Surgery 2004; 47: 8 â 9)

A full list of references for this article are available at the Maimonides Wikipedia page

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Essence

A Towering Intellect

A Global Scholar

Bridging Traditions

Life

Early Years & Education

Exile & Resilience

Personal Adversity & Public Service

The Royal Physician

Demise & Legacy

Writings

Mishneh Torah

Commentary on the Mishnah

The Guide for the Perplexed

Other Judaic Works

Healing

Medical Treatises

The Oath & Prayer

Reason

Treatise on Logic

Thought

Scholastic Influence

Faith & Reason

Creed

The Thirteen Principles of Faith

Reception & Canonization

Divine

The Necessary Being

Apophatic Theology

Reason & Revelation

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Cultivating Character

The Path of Rectification

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