Monotheism: The Singular Divine
An academic exploration of the belief in one God, its origins, and diverse manifestations across cultures.
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The Concept of Monotheism
Defining Monotheism
Monotheism is fundamentally the belief that a single deity serves as the sole, or at least the dominant, divine entity. This belief is distinguished from henotheism, which involves the worship of one god without denying the existence or validity of other deities, and monolatrism, which recognizes multiple gods but consistently worships only one. Monotheistic frameworks can range from exclusive, positing a singular divine existence, to inclusive or pluriform models, which acknowledge multiple divine forms as extensions of a single, supreme God.
Historical and Cultural Context
The concept of monotheism is deeply intertwined with major religious traditions. The Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and their derivatives like Druzism—are prominent examples. Beyond these, early monotheistic or quasi-monotheistic traditions include ancient Egyptian Atenism, Platonic and Neoplatonic conceptions of the Monad, Mandaeism, Manichaeism, Waaqeffanna, and Zoroastrianism. Later developments also saw the emergence of monotheistic beliefs in Deism, Yazidism, Sikhism, and various new religious movements.
Etymology and Scholarly Discourse
Linguistic Origins
The term "monotheism" is derived from the Greek words 'monos' (single) and 'theos' (god). It was first coined by the philosopher Henry More in 1660. While the term itself is relatively recent, the concept it describes has roots in various ancient philosophical and religious traditions.
Historical Usage and Nuance
Early usage of the term, such as by More, was not always rigorous, often serving as a marker for "good" religion. Later thinkers, influenced by the Enlightenment, engaged more deeply with the concept. Many modern definitions of monotheism are inherently modern and often reflect Christian-centric perspectives, which can sometimes obscure the complexity and diversity found in ancient sources. Scholars often employ alternative terms like monolatry, henotheism, or "one-god discourse" to better capture the nuances of these historical belief systems.
Historical Trajectories of Monotheism
Ancient Antecedents
Quasi-monotheistic claims trace back to the Late Bronze Age with Akhenaten's veneration of the Aten in ancient Egypt. During the Vedic period in South Asia, monistic ideas emerged, particularly concerning Brahman. In ancient China, the worship of Shangdi or Heaven, while not strictly monotheistic due to the presence of lesser deities, approached the concept, with Mohism later advocating for a singular divine will.
Zoroastrianism and Early Judaism
Zoroastrianism, dating from at least the 6th century BCE, centers on Ahura Mazda, the "Maker of All." While scholars debate its classification due to the role of Ahriman, it is often credited as an early monotheistic influence. Post-exilic Judaism (late 6th century BCE) significantly developed the concept of a personal, monotheistic God, laying groundwork for ethical monotheism.
Philosophical Foundations
Ancient Greek philosophers contributed to early monotheistic thought. Xenophanes criticized anthropomorphic deities, proposing a singular, supreme god. Plato's concept of the Demiurge and Aristotle's Unmoved Mover profoundly influenced later theological developments, bridging philosophical inquiry with divine concepts.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Historically, monotheism was sometimes viewed as the original religion of humanity. However, scholarly consensus shifted towards an evolutionary model: Animism -> Polytheism -> Monotheism. More recent scholarship suggests a more nuanced progression, potentially including stages like Henotheism and Monolatry, or even proposing an "Urmonotheismus" (primitive monotheism).
Spectrum of Monotheistic Belief
Narrow Monotheism
This form strictly adheres to the belief in only one deity, actively disallowing the existence or worship of any other gods. Religions adhering to narrow monotheism often interpret other monotheistic faiths as acknowledging their own specific deity under different appellations or forms, thereby maintaining the singularity of the divine.
Wide Monotheism
Wide monotheism acknowledges a single, supreme deity while permitting the existence or veneration of lesser divine beings or intermediaries. Examples include Atenism, certain interpretations within Hinduism, Chinese religions, Tengrism, Mandaeism, Yazidism, and Zoroastrianism, where a supreme God coexists with other spiritual entities or manifestations.
Monotheistic Traditions Across Regions
Africa
Early monotheistic traditions in Africa include the Cushitic and Nilotic peoples of the Nile Valley (circa 5th millennium BCE), who worshipped Waaq, a singular sky deity. This belief persists among some groups, such as the Maasai with their deity Engai. The Oromo people continue to practice Waaqeffanna, a traditional monotheistic religion, and celebrate the Irreechaa festival in gratitude to Waaq.
Americas
Native American religions exhibit diverse theological structures, including monotheistic, polytheistic, and animistic beliefs. The Cherokee religion, for instance, incorporates monotheistic and pantheistic elements. Concepts like the Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka among the Sioux) represent a universal spiritual force. Similarly, Aztec philosophy has been interpreted as leaning towards monotheism through the concept of Teotl, though this interpretation faces scholarly debate regarding potential post-Conquistador bias.
Asia
Asian traditions present a complex tapestry of monotheistic thought. Hinduism encompasses monism, pantheism, panentheism, and monotheism, viewing God as one despite multiple forms. Sikhism is strictly monotheistic, centered on the concept of Akal Purakh (Waheguru). Chinese religions historically venerated Shangdi/Heaven as supreme, but with lesser deities. Tengrism, Mandaeism, Yazidism, and Zoroastrianism offer further examples of monotheistic or related beliefs, each with unique historical and theological characteristics.
Europe
Ancient European religious thought shows early monotheistic inclinations. The Proto-Indo-European religion featured *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr as a chief deity, though the religion itself was not monotheistic. Slavic traditions recognized Perun, the storm god, as a singular lord. In ancient Greece, philosophers like Xenophanes critiqued polytheism, proposing a singular, supreme god, while Neoplatonism explored the concept of "The One."
Monotheism in Abrahamic Traditions
Judaism
Judaism is recognized as one of the earliest monotheistic religions. While early Israelite worship included deities like El, Baal, and Asherah, the cult of Yahweh evolved towards strict monolatry and eventually strict monotheism, particularly after the 8th century BCE. Maimonides articulated a foundational principle: "God is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair... Rather, God is a unity unlike any other possible unity."
Christianity
Christianity centers on the doctrine of the Trinity—God as one essence in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, as codified by the Nicene Creed (325 CE). This doctrine has been a subject of debate, with non-Trinitarian faiths like Unitarianism and Mormonism offering alternative views. Judaism and Islam often view the Trinity as *shituf* or *shirk*, respectively, while Christians maintain it is a valid expression of monotheistic unity.
Islam
Islam emphasizes strict monotheism, known as Tawhid. Allah is understood as the singular, unique, merciful, and omnipotent Creator. Islamic belief posits that Muhammad brought the original, uncorrupted message of God, shared by earlier prophets like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. The Quran explicitly states that Allah is the same God worshipped by Christians and Jews.
Critiques and Controversies
Tolerance and Pluralism
Philosophers like David Hume and Auguste Comte have critiqued monotheism for its perceived lack of pluralism and potential conflict with inherent human benevolence. Hume suggested monotheism's singular focus might be less tolerant than polytheism, while Comte argued it compels exclusive devotion, potentially clashing with benevolent instincts.
Totalizing Discourse
Scholars such as Mark S. Smith and Jacob Neusner describe monotheism as a "totalizing discourse" that can lead to the exclusion of "others" and offers little basis for tolerating alternative religious perspectives. This perspective suggests that the inherent exclusivity of monotheistic claims can foster intolerance.
Historical Violence
Some analyses link early monotheism to historical violence, citing the Israelite conquest of Canaan as an example. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan argued that the intolerance of narrow monotheism has historically fueled aggressive wars and persecution of those with differing beliefs. However, scholarly consensus questions whether early Israelites were strictly monotheistic during this period or if such conquests occurred as described.
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References
References
- Homer H. Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy", Philosophy of East and West, Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959
- "First and last for all Eternity, as the Father of the Good Mind, the true Creator of Truth and Lord over the actions of life." (Yasna 31.8)
- Fowden, Garth (1993). Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity. (New Jersey: Princeton University Press), p 6.
- Darnell, J. C., & Manassa, C. (2007). Tutankhamun's Armies: Battle and conquest during ancient Egypt's Late Eighteenth Dynasty. John Wiley & Sons.
- Rice, Julian (1998). Before the great spirit: the many faces of Sioux spirituality. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1868-1.
- James Maffie, Aztec Philosophy: Understanding a World in Motion, University Press of Colorado, 15/03/2014
- For the ÅatarudrÄ«ya as an early example of enumeration of divine names, see: Flood (1996), p. 152.
- Napil Bazylkhan, Kenje Torlanbaeva in: Central Eurasian Studies Society, Central Eurasian Studies Society, 2004, p.40
- Gerhard Böwering, God and his Attributes, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- "Allah." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica
- Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
- D. Gimaret, Tawhid, Encyclopedia of Islam
- Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel, Fortress Press (1998); Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts, Oxford University Press (2001)
- Maimonides, 13 principles of faith, Second Principle
- The Light and the Dark: Dualism in ancient Iran, India, and China Petrus Franciscus Maria Fontaine â 1990
- McKirahan, Richard D. "Xenophanes of Colophon. Philosophy Before Socrates. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994. 61. Print.
- Osborne, Catherine. "Chapter 4." Presocratic Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP. 62. Print.
- Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, s.v. "Apollo".
- Jennifer Isaacs (2005). Australian Dreaming: 40,000 Years of Aboriginal History. New South Wales: New Holland.
- Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (14 November 2013). The Andaman Islanders. Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-107-62556-3.
- The Catechism of Positive Religion, page 251
- Arvind Sharma, "A Primal Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion", Dordrecht, Springer, 2006, p.29.
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