Broadcast Empires
A scholarly examination of the strategic ownership, operational models, and global impact of network-owned television and radio stations.
What are O&Os? 👇 Explore Global Reach 🌍Dive in with Flashcard Learning!
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮
Introduction to O&Os
Defining the O&O Model
In the dynamic landscape of broadcasting, an owned-and-operated station (often abbreviated as O&O) refers to a television or radio station directly owned by the network with which it is associated. This model stands in contrast to an affiliate station, which is an independently owned entity that carries network programming through a contractual agreement.
The distinction is particularly salient in regions like the United States and Canada, where broadcasting licenses are typically issued on a local rather than a national basis. Regulatory frameworks in these countries historically limited the extent to which any single company, including a broadcasting network, could own stations across all markets.
O&O vs. Affiliate: A Critical Distinction
While an affiliation agreement might exist between a network and its O&O, this is often a legal formality within the same corporate structure. Unlike independent affiliates, O&Os are subject to direct control by their parent network. For instance, O&Os rarely preempt network programming, reserving such actions primarily for significant breaking news relevant to their local viewing area, a practice that may differ from the rights of individual affiliates.
The terminology also reflects ownership: a station owned by the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) is an "ABC station" or "ABC O&O." Conversely, a station airing ABC programming but owned by a different entity, such as Tegna, Inc., is correctly termed an "ABC affiliate." Informal usage, however, sometimes blurs these lines, referring to any station carrying a network's content as a "network station."
Historical Context and Evolution
The concept of O&Os has evolved significantly. Early networks like The WB and UPN initially operated with complex ownership structures where major stakeholders (e.g., Time Warner, Chris-Craft, Viacom) owned stations that aired their programming but weren't strictly O&Os under the initial definitions. This ambiguity often resolved through mergers or buyouts, leading to more direct network ownership. A notable example is The CW, which saw its ownership structure shift, leading to Nexstar-owned affiliates becoming O&Os after acquiring a majority interest in the network.[4]
Global O&O Landscapes
Australia's Concentrated Ownership
In Australia, major commercial networks like Seven, Nine, and Network 10 maintain O&Os in the five largest metropolitan areas (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide), collectively reaching two-thirds of the national population. Additionally, these networks extend their O&O presence into regional areas. Public broadcasters, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), operate all their local stations as O&Os, ensuring national reach and consistent programming.
Indonesian Network Dynamics
Indonesia's public networks, Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) and TVRI, have historically owned and operated all their local stations. For private networks, the trend of owning multiple stations emerged in the 2000s, driven by relaxed broadcast area restrictions and new networking regulations. While many local private stations are O&Os of national networks (often established as separate companies but under the same parent), they typically adopt a "[network name] [city/province]" branding. A unique case is RBTV (Yogyakarta), an affiliate of Kompas TV with only 25% ownership. Indonesian regulations permit O&O television stations to air mostly national programming, while radio O&Os tend to focus on local content.
Japan's Hybrid Model
Japanese commercial terrestrial television is dominated by five major organizations. The four largest (Nippon TV, Tokyo Broadcasting System, Fuji TV, TV Asahi) own and operate stations in key metropolitan areas (Tokyo, Keihanshin, Chukyo, Fukuoka), covering over half the country's population. Many network affiliates in other markets are also effectively O&Os, as the networks or their affiliated newspaper groups hold controlling shares. The smaller TV Tokyo network, however, explicitly owns and operates all its local stations. The public broadcaster NHK also owns and operates all its regional stations for both NHK General TV and NHK Educational TV.
Philippine Simulcasting
In the Philippines, major networks such as GMA Network and TV5 (and formerly ABS-CBN, now All TV) predominantly own and operate their local television stations. These regional stations largely simulcast or relay the entire programming lineup of their parent network's flagship station, typically based in Metro Manila. This practice often leads to the terms "network," "station," and "channel" being used interchangeably. Viewers can often access the flagship station via pay-TV even if their local O&O has some regional variations.
UK's Unique Ownership Structures
The UK's ITV network is jointly owned by the proprietors of its local "Channel 3" stations, primarily ITV plc and STV Group plc. While technically the stations own the network, ITV plc's consolidation of most Channel 3 licenses means its stations function as O&Os. STV, with its significant schedule deviations, operates more like an affiliate. The BBC, as a public broadcaster, produces all its regional programs, making all its "stations" O&Os. Local Television Limited also owns and operates stations in major UK metropolitan areas, offering localized content. Notably, O&Os in the UK are generally viewable nationwide, with options for regional feeds via platforms like Sky, Freesat, and BBC iPlayer.
Latin American Regulatory Influences
In Brazil, government regulations limit network ownership, leading major networks (TV Globo, Record, SBT, Band, RedeTV!) to concentrate O&Os in large metropolitan areas like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, relying heavily on affiliates elsewhere. Smaller networks, such as TV Gazeta, often operate with only a single O&O. Conversely, in Chile, major television networks currently own and operate all their stations, a model that has become more prevalent since Canal 13's affiliate, Telenorte, disaffiliated in 1989. Mexico's lack of an ownership cap allows companies like Grupo Televisa and Azteca to own multiple stations across markets, often consolidating programming from various networks onto single stations, though privately owned local stations still exist.
O&Os in the USA
FCC Regulations and Market Coverage
Unlike Canada's more lenient media ownership policies, the United States' Federal Communications Commission (FCC) imposes a national market coverage cap, limiting any single company, including a television network, to owning stations that collectively reach a maximum of 39% of the country's television households.[5] This regulation necessitates that television networks operate O&Os in only a fraction of the 210 designated market areas (DMAs), with the remaining markets served by independently owned affiliates.
Consequently, O&Os are predominantly found in major urban centers such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and other top-10 U.S. markets like the San Francisco Bay Area, Dallas–Fort Worth, and Philadelphia. Historically, O&Os have also existed in smaller markets, demonstrating a strategic balance between market size and regulatory compliance.
Radio Network Evolution
The landscape of radio O&Os in the U.S. has undergone significant transformation. Many traditional network radio operations, such as NBC, ABC, and CBS, largely fragmented or were spun off starting in the 1980s. For instance, NBC's radio network effectively ceased to exist beyond brand licensing, and ABC's in-house radio network was relaunched in 2015 after its news brand was replaced by Westwood One News.[6] CBS's radio stations became a separate entity, CBS Radio, with distribution agreements with various partners.
However, new models have emerged. Companies like iHeartMedia and Cumulus Media now own numerous stations in major markets, feeding them with programming from corporate subsidiaries or internal distribution, particularly for talk radio. Religious radio networks (e.g., Salem Communications, Moody Radio, Trinity Broadcasting Network, Daystar, Air 1/K-Love) often own and operate all their stations. Notably, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is structured such that its individual member stations own the network, preventing PBS itself from owning or operating any stations.
Unified Branding Strategies
Shared Identity Across O&Os
A hallmark of owned-and-operated stations is their tendency to share common branding elements, which reinforces their collective identity as part of the same network. This strategy offers practical benefits, including cost savings, as O&Os can utilize standardized graphics, music, and promotional packages rather than commissioning individual branding for each station.
A classic example in the U.S. is the "CBS 2" branding, uniformly adopted by CBS O&Os like KCBS-TV in Los Angeles, WCBS-TV in New York City, and WBBM-TV in Chicago, a practice that became prevalent in the mid-1990s. Similarly, the iconic "Circle 7 logo," originally designed for ABC's O&Os broadcasting on VHF channel 7, is a recognizable shared element. Fox also provides comprehensive branding guidelines for both its O&Os and affiliates, while ABC, since 2013–14, mandates the use of its circle logo as part of all affiliate station logos, requiring network approval.
International Branding Variations
In Canada, corporate branding has been taken to its logical extreme, with references to local call signs and channel numbers almost entirely eliminated from O&Os, except during official sign-on and sign-off sequences. This emphasizes the national network identity over local specifics.
The UK's BBC One demonstrates similar O&O branding in its continuity sequences, where regional announcers identify the specific BBC One region before national news bulletins. The fonts, graphics, and even the format of regional news and weather segments mirror those of the national broadcasts. Sweden's Sveriges Television (SVT) also employs identical graphics for regional news segments within its national programs, often featuring montages of top regional reports rather than in-studio presenters.
Beyond O&Os: Licensing and Influence
The influence of O&O branding extends beyond network-owned stations. Other large television station groups, such as Hearst Television, implement common branding practices across their diverse station portfolios, even when affiliated with different networks. Moreover, some branding elements originally associated with O&Os have been adopted by stations that are neither O&Os nor direct affiliates. For instance, Sunbeam Television's WHDH in Boston and WSVN in Miami use variations of the Circle 7 logo, and KCRG-TV in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, an ABC affiliate, uses a motif reminiscent of CBS's "I Love Chicago."
Network affiliates may also license graphics packages from their networks for newscasts and promotions, a practice that helps reduce costs. These widespread branding strategies ultimately trace back to the early O&O models, which pioneered the concept of unified station groups under common ownership before the proliferation of national station ownership groups.
Network & O&O Synergy
Career Pathways and Exposure
Positions at network O&Os are highly coveted, often serving as a crucial stepping stone for aspiring television personalities and behind-the-scenes staff aiming for network-level careers. Many prominent figures in broadcasting began their careers at O&Os. For example, Tom Brokaw worked for NBC's Los Angeles O&O, KNBC, before moving to the national network. Similarly, Matt Lauer and Al Roker honed their skills at WNBC-TV, NBC's flagship O&O in New York City, before joining the Today show.[7][8]
Working at an O&O, particularly in a major media market, provides enhanced exposure to network executives and a larger audience, significantly boosting career prospects. This dynamic also applies to behind-the-scenes personnel, who may be promoted to higher network-level positions, as exemplified by Emmy Award-winning videotape editor Walter Balderson, who transitioned from an engineer at WRC-TV to NBC's videotape editor for The Huntley–Brinkley Report.
Co-located Facilities and Cross-Promotion
A common practice is the co-location of network operations within the same facilities as one or more of its O&Os. This physical proximity fosters seamless collaboration and resource sharing. For instance, production of Global's national newscast, Global National, is controlled from its Vancouver O&O, CHAN-DT. Similarly, CTV's network headquarters are co-located with CFTO in Scarborough, Ontario. NBC's national network operations in New York City and Los Angeles are housed within the same facilities as their respective local O&Os, WNBC and KNBC, which are considered flagship stations.
This integration facilitates cross-promotional activities. Lead presenters of an O&O's local news program might shoot promos in the same studio with the host of the parent network's late-night talk show. Network office corridors often feature promotional posters for co-located O&O programs, further blurring the lines between local and national identities and maximizing audience reach.
Content Sharing and Contribution
O&Os play a vital role in content generation and sharing across the network ecosystem. In the U.S., during breaking news events of national interest within an O&O's market, sister O&Os often rely on correspondents from the affected station for on-air updates. Major network news websites frequently feature local news sections, populated with reports directly from their O&Os. The ABC News app on Apple TV, for example, includes a local news section with video reports prepared by its various O&Os, and content is often cross-posted across O&O websites and social media feeds.
Internationally, this synergy is also evident. BBC regional offices (e.g., BBC Bristol, BBC Wales/Cymru, BBC Scotland) are credited with producing national BBC programs like Dr Who and Question Time. In Germany, regional stations contribute content to ARD's national channel, Das Erste. In the Philippines, GMA Network's regional stations contribute to a daily national news bulletin focused on regional news, airing on its sister network GTV. This collaborative content model underscores the integral role of O&Os in enriching both local and national broadcasting.
Ownership & Network Evolution
Stability and Strategic Shifts
Generally, an owned-and-operated station enjoys a high degree of ownership stability, as it typically represents a significant revenue stream for its parent network. Consequently, the likelihood of an O&O switching networks is low, unless the station is acquired by another network. However, networks may divest O&Os if they become financially unviable, or in anticipation of mergers and corporate deals that could push the network beyond regulatory ownership limits, such as the FCC's 39% cap in the United States. Such sales can also be a strategy to alleviate financial pressures.
Depending on the new owner, a divested O&O might retain its existing network affiliation, switch to another network, or even become an O&O for a different network. These transitions highlight the dynamic nature of media ownership and the strategic considerations that drive network portfolio management.
Australian Ownership Changes
Australia has seen notable O&O transactions. In 1987, STW-9 in Perth and QTQ-9 in Brisbane became O&Os of the Nine Network following its acquisition by Bond Media.[9] After Bond Media's collapse, STW-9 was sold and remained a Nine affiliate until Nine Entertainment Co. re-acquired it in 2013, reinstating its O&O status.[10] QTQ-9, however, consistently remained a Nine O&O. Similarly, NEW-10 in Perth, initially a Network Ten O&O in 1988, was sold due to financial difficulties but later re-acquired by Network Ten (under CanWest Global ownership) in 1995, maintaining its O&O status since.[11]
Canadian Realignment Examples
Canadian broadcasting has also experienced significant O&O realignments. CKVU-TV in Vancouver, a Global O&O since 1988, was sold to CHUM Limited in 2000 and became part of the Citytv system after CanWest Global acquired WIC stations, including the higher-rated CHAN-TV, and faced CRTC regulations limiting ownership in the same market.[12] Canwest's E! system, a parallel network for WIC stations, saw its O&Os sold, closed, or converted into Global O&Os due to financial difficulties.[13][14][15][16] Another instance involved CJBN-TV in Kenora, which transitioned from a CTV affiliate to a Global O&O under Shaw Communications, only to be closed entirely in 2016 after Shaw Media was sold to Corus Entertainment.[17][18]
US Market Shifts and Affiliation Battles
The U.S. market has witnessed numerous O&O and affiliation changes. Fox's acquisition of the National Football Conference broadcast contract in 1993 led to its purchase of a 20% stake in New World Communications, whose stations in major NFC markets subsequently switched to Fox and became O&Os after Fox acquired New World in 1996.[19][20][21]
The 1994 Westinghouse/CBS deal saw several station affiliation swaps and sales to comply with ownership rules, including NBC trading stations to Group W (which later merged with CBS) to avoid tax issues.[22][23] More recently, NBC's decision not to renew its affiliation with Sunbeam Television-owned WHDH in Boston in 2015 led to a complex series of transactions, including NBC acquiring and swapping call signs for several stations to establish its own O&O presence in the market.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]
A significant shift occurred in 2022 when Nexstar Media Group acquired a majority stake in The CW. This transformed Nexstar-owned CW affiliates into O&Os, while CBS-owned CW O&Os reverted to affiliate status.[36] Subsequently, CBS announced its eight CW affiliates would become independent, leading Nexstar to transition some of its MyNetworkTV affiliates to The CW to fill the void.[37][38][39]
Teacher's Corner
Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio
Click here to open the "Owned-and-operated Station" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit
Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.
True or False?
Test Your Knowledge!
Gamer's Corner
Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?
Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!
Play now
References
References
Feedback & Support
To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.
Disclaimer
Important Notice
This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.
This is not professional advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional media consulting, legal counsel regarding broadcast regulations, or strategic business planning in the broadcasting industry. Always refer to official regulatory bodies and consult with qualified professionals for specific business or legal needs. Never disregard professional advice because of something you have read on this website.
The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.