Palestine Unveiled

🏛️ Ancient Crossroads to Ottoman Rule

The region of Palestine, part of the wider Levant, has historically served as a crucial land bridge between Africa and Eurasia, making it a crossroads for religion, culture, commerce, and politics. It is among the earliest regions to witness human habitation, agricultural communities, and the rise of civilization. Throughout the Bronze and Iron Ages, it was home to Canaanite city-states, Israelite kingdoms (Israel and Judah), and Philistine settlements, experiencing rule by various empires including the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks under Alexander the Great. Following the Maccabean Revolt, the Hasmonean Kingdom emerged, later becoming a Roman vassal. Roman Judea saw Jewish revolts, leading to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. With the Roman Empire's adoption of Christianity, Palestine became a significant religious center. The Muslim conquest in 636–641 CE ushered in successive Islamic dynasties, including the Rashiduns, Umayyads, Abbasids, Tulunids, Ikhshidids, Fatimids, and Seljuks. The First Crusade established the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which was later reconquered by the Ayyubid Sultanate. After Mongol invasions, the Egyptian Mamluks reunified Palestine, before it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1516, remaining part of Ottoman Syria until the 20th century.

🕊️ Rise of Nationalism and British Mandate

The early 20th century saw the rise of Palestinian nationalism, influenced by broader Arab nationalism and the emergence of the Zionist movement seeking a Jewish homeland. Ottoman rule ended with World War I, and in 1920, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate to govern Palestine. This period, known as Mandatory Palestine, was marked by escalating tensions and violent clashes between Jewish and Arab communities, fueled by Jewish immigration and land disputes. The Arab Revolt (1936–1939) saw Arab nationalists demanding an end to Jewish immigration and the establishment of an independent Arab state. Britain responded with military force and policies like the 1939 White Paper, which restricted Jewish immigration and land purchases, further angering the Zionist movement. Zionist militant groups like Irgun, Hagana, and Lehi engaged in violence against British and civilian targets. Notable incidents included the 1946 King David Hotel bombing and the Exodus 1947 incident. In 1947, the UN proposed a partition plan for separate Jewish and Arab states, accepted by Jewish leaders but rejected by Arab nations.

⚔️ Arab-Israeli Wars and PLO Emergence

The rejection of the UN partition plan led to the 1948 Palestine War, resulting in the establishment of Israel and the displacement of a majority of the Arab population, an event Palestinians refer to as the Nakba ('catastrophe'). Israel gained additional territories, while Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip and Transjordan annexed the West Bank. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was established in 1964 with the goal of confronting Israel, defining Palestine's boundaries as the entire mandate territory. The 1967 Six-Day War saw Israel occupy the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The PLO gained international recognition as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" by the Arab League in 1974 and observer status at the UN. Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank to the PLO in 1988.

🤝 Uprising, Declaration, and Peace Efforts

The First Intifada, a widespread Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation, erupted in 1987. In November 1988, the PLO declared the establishment of the "State of Palestine" from exile, quickly recognized by many states. The UN General Assembly acknowledged this proclamation, using "Palestine" instead of "PLO." The 1993 Oslo Accords, signed between Israel and the PLO, led to the creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) with limited self-governance in parts of the West Bank and Gaza. Yasser Arafat was elected president of the PA in 1994. However, the peace process faced significant opposition from both sides, marked by militant attacks (e.g., Hamas, Islamic Jihad) and extremist violence (e.g., Baruch Goldstein's massacre, Yitzhak Rabin's assassination). Despite economic prosperity in PA-controlled areas and the building of Gaza's second airport, negotiations on core issues like Jerusalem, settlements, and refugees remained contentious, culminating in the failed Camp David Summit in 2000.

💔 Second Intifada and Civil Strife

The failure of the Camp David Summit and Ariel Sharon's controversial visit to the Temple Mount in September 2000 triggered the Second Intifada, a period of intense violence and civil unrest. This era saw bloody clashes, increased militant attacks by Palestinian groups, Israeli military operations (e.g., Operation Defensive Shield, destruction of Gaza Airport), and the construction of security barriers. Saddam Hussein provided financial support to Palestinian militants during this period. After Yasser Arafat's death in 2004, Mahmoud Abbas was elected president in 2005. Israel unilaterally withdrew from Gaza in 2005, but a political standoff ensued after Hamas won the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections. This led to a civil war in 2007, with Hamas gaining control of the Gaza Strip and Fatah governing the West Bank. Since then, Israel has maintained a partial blockade on Gaza, and peace efforts have largely stalled.

🚧 Continued Conflict and Modern Challenges

The division between the West Bank and Gaza continues to complicate efforts for Palestinian unity and a comprehensive peace agreement. Persistent obstacles include Israeli settlement expansion, the status of Jerusalem, border definitions, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees. Recent diplomatic initiatives, such as the Abraham Accords, have reshaped regional dynamics but have not directly addressed the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The status quo presents ongoing challenges for Palestinians, including occupation, restricted movement, and economic hardships. The October 2023 Hamas-led attacks on Israel were followed by the Gaza War, causing widespread destruction, mass displacement, a severe humanitarian crisis, and an ongoing famine in the Gaza Strip. Human rights organizations and international law scholars have raised concerns about alleged genocide in Gaza, with tens of thousands of casualties reported. The conflict has also spilled over into the West Bank, exacerbating an already volatile situation.

⚖️ Political Structure

Palestine operates under a semi-presidential system of government. Its political framework involves institutions associated with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). The President of the State of Palestine, appointed by the Palestinian Central Council, leads the PLO, which also includes the Palestinian National Council and the Executive Committee. This Executive Committee effectively functions as a government-in-exile, maintaining an extensive foreign-relations network. Distinct from these are the President of the Palestinian National Authority, the Palestinian Legislative Council, and the PNA Cabinet, which are associated with the PNA's territorial administration.

📝 Founding Documents and Governance

The Palestinian Declaration of Independence serves as Palestine's founding document. This is distinct from the PLO's Palestinian National Covenant and the PNA's Palestine Basic Law. The Palestinian government is geographically divided: the Palestinian Authority, led by the Fatah party, partially controls the West Bank, while the Gaza Strip is under the control of the militant group Hamas. Fatah is a secular party founded by Yasser Arafat, generally maintaining good relations with Western powers. Hamas, conversely, is a militant group rooted in Palestinian nationalist and Islamic ideology, inspired by the Muslim Brotherhood, and has tense relations with the United States but receives support from Iran. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), founded by George Habash, is another significant secular party.

👤 Leadership and Challenges

Mahmoud Abbas has served as the President of the country since 2005. Mohammad Mustafa was appointed as the new Prime Minister in 2024, following the resignation of Mohammad Shtayyeh. Yahya Sinwar was the leader of the Hamas government in the Gaza Strip before his death in October 2024. According to Freedom House, the Palestinian National Authority governs in an authoritarian manner, including through the repression of activists and journalists critical of the government. Jerusalem, including Haram ash-Sharif, is claimed as the capital by Palestine, though East Jerusalem remains under Israeli occupation. Ramallah, located 10 km from Jerusalem, serves as the temporary administrative center, hosting state ministries and representative offices. A government building constructed in Abu Dis in 2000, intended to house Yasser Arafat's office and the Palestinian parliament, became unsuitable as a capital due to the Second Intifada. Nevertheless, the Palestinian entity maintains a presence in Jerusalem, with some parts of the city under Palestinian control and several countries maintaining consulates there.

diplomacy Diplomatic Engagements

Palestine's foreign relations are managed through its Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) represents the State of Palestine internationally, maintaining embassies in countries that recognize it and participating in various international organizations as a member, associate, or observer. The Vatican, for instance, shifted its recognition to the State of Palestine in May 2015, aligning with the Holy See's evolving position following the 2012 UN vote. Currently, 146 UN member states (75%) recognize the State of Palestine. Even countries that do not formally recognize it often acknowledge the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO's executive committee, empowered by the Palestinian National Council, acts as the government in this context. Palestine is a full member of significant regional and international bodies, including the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and the Union for the Mediterranean. Sweden notably upgraded the Palestinian representative office to a full embassy in 2013, becoming the first EU member state outside the former communist bloc to officially recognize the State of Palestine.

🤝 Alliances and Shifting Dynamics

Members of the Arab League and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation have consistently and strongly supported Palestine's position in its conflict with Israel. Iran has been a steadfast ally since the Islamic revolution, providing military support to Palestinian fedayeen and militant groups, including Hamas, through its "Axis of Resistance," which also involves governments and rebel groups from Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen. Historically, Iraq under the Ba'athist government of Saddam Hussein was also a strong supporter of Palestine. Turkey and Qatar are known supporters of Hamas, with Qatar providing key financial backing and hosting Hamas leaders. However, some alliances have shifted; India, once a strong ally of Palestine, has significantly strengthened its ties with Israel since 1991. Similarly, relations with the United Arab Emirates deteriorated following its normalization agreement with Israel. Other political allies include the Republic of Ireland, Venezuela, and South Africa. The PLO also has a history of providing training to groups like Tamil rebels during the Sri Lankan Civil War.

📜 References