What is the Pali Canon?

The Pali Canon, also known as the Tipiṭaka, is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition. It is preserved in the Pali language and is considered the most complete extant collection of early Buddhist texts.

In which Buddhist tradition is the Pali Canon the standard collection of scriptures?

The Pali Canon serves as the standard collection of scriptures for the Theravada Buddhist tradition.

What language is the Pali Canon preserved in?

The Pali Canon is preserved in the Pali language, which is an ancient Middle Indo-Aryan language.

What is the significance of the Pali Canon being the most complete extant early Buddhist canon?

Its status as the most complete extant early Buddhist canon means it provides the most comprehensive surviving record of the earliest Buddhist teachings and scriptures.

From which specific school does the Pali Canon primarily derive its lineage?

The Pali Canon primarily derives from the Tamrashatiya school, one of the early Buddhist schools.

According to Buddhist tradition, how was the Pali Canon initially preserved after the Buddha's passing?

According to tradition, after the Buddha's parinibbana, Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka and Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka at the First Buddhist Council. The teachings were then preserved orally by the Sangha for centuries.

When and where was the Pali Canon first written down?

The Pali Canon was first written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist Council, which took place in 29 BC, approximately 454 years after the death of Gautama Buddha.

What is the traditional Theravada view on the composition of the Pali Canon?

Theravada tradition generally regards the Pali Canon as originating from the Buddha and his immediate disciples, with only minor later additions, primarily in the Abhidhamma Pitaka, that refer to events after the Buddha's death.

What are the three main categories, or 'baskets,' that comprise the Pali Canon?

The Pali Canon is divided into three categories, known as pitakas (meaning 'baskets'): the Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket), the Sutta Pitaka (Discourses Basket), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Systematic Philosophy Basket).

What does the Vinaya Pitaka primarily concern itself with?

The Vinaya Pitaka primarily deals with the rules and discipline for the monastic community, the Sangha, encompassing both monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis).

What are the three parts of the Vinaya Pitaka?

The Vinaya Pitaka is divided into three parts: the Suttavibhanga, which comments on the Patimokkha (the monastic code); the Khandhaka, containing other rules grouped by topic; and the Parivara, which analyzes the rules from various perspectives.

What is the Sutta Pitaka, and what does it contain?

The Sutta Pitaka, meaning 'basket of threads' or 'basket of the well-spoken,' contains the discourses, sermons, and teachings of the Buddha, as well as some religious poetry. It is the largest of the three pitakas.

How is the Sutta Pitaka organized?

The Sutta Pitaka is organized into five subdivisions, known as Nikayas: the Digha Nikaya (long discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (medium-length discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (grouped discourses), Anguttara Nikaya (numerical discourses), and Khuddaka Nikaya (miscellaneous collection).

What is the Abhidhamma Pitaka, and what is its general focus?

The Abhidhamma Pitaka, meaning 'higher dhamma' or 'special dhamma,' is a collection of texts that provide a scholastic and systematic explanation of Buddhist doctrines, particularly concerning the mind and reality. It is sometimes referred to as the 'systematic philosophy' basket.

How do the Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka compare to texts from other early Buddhist schools?

The Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka are notably similar to the texts preserved by other early Buddhist schools, often referred to as Early Buddhist Texts. However, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is considered a strictly Theravada collection with fewer parallels to the Abhidhamma works of other schools.

What is the scholarly view on the composition of the Abhidhamma Pitaka?

Western scholarship suggests that the Abhidhamma Pitaka likely began to be composed around 300 BCE, possibly drawing on an earlier tradition of lists and rubrics known as 'matrika'.

What do most Western scholars consider to be the earliest stratum of the Pali Canon?

Most Western scholars believe the earliest identifiable stratum of the Pali Canon consists mainly of prose works, including the Vinaya (excluding the Parivara) and the first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka, possibly along with some short verse works.

What is the significance of the geographical settings mentioned in the Pali Canon?

The geographical settings described in the Pali Canon generally correspond to locations in northeastern India, such as the kingdoms of Kosala, Kasi, Vajji, and Magadha, which aligns with the historical period of the Buddha.

What is the linguistic consensus regarding the language of the Pali Canon?

While Theravada tradition equates Pali with the language spoken by the Buddha in Magadhi, linguists suggest Pali is more closely related to Prakrit languages of western India and differs from preserved examples of Magadhi. This indicates the teachings might have been originally recorded in an eastern Indian language and later transposed into a western Indian precursor of Pali.

How does Peter Harvey describe the relationship between the Pali Canon and later Theravada orthodoxy?

Peter Harvey notes that the Pali Canon contains material that sometimes conflicts with later Theravada orthodoxy, suggesting that while Theravadins may have added texts over time, they were generally conservative in preserving the existing material from earlier periods.

What is the traditional Theravada interpretation of the Pali Canon summarized in?

The traditional Theravada interpretation of the Pali Canon is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga, which was compiled along with a series of commentaries covering nearly the entire Canon, based on earlier, now lost, materials.

What is the role of memorization and recitation in the practice related to the Pali Canon?

Despite the Canon existing in written form for millennia, memorization and recitation remain important in Buddhist practice, serving as a form of meditation, especially when the meaning is understood. Monks are expected to know a significant portion of the Canon by heart.

What is the relationship between the Pali Canon and the actual practices of ordinary monks and laypeople?

The relationship is complex, as evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon were widely used by ordinary practitioners, and non-canonical works were sometimes more popular, with variations occurring from place to place.

What does Rupert Gethin suggest about the entirety of Buddhist history in relation to the early scriptures?

Rupert Gethin suggests that the entire history of Buddhism can be viewed as the unfolding and working out of the implications found within the early scriptures.

What is the scholarly view on the authorship of the Pali Canon, according to Richard Gombrich?

Richard Gombrich argues that the main preachings in the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka are coherent and cogent, suggesting they are the work of a single person, the Buddha himself, rather than a committee of followers.

What evidence do scholars like Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali cite for the early dating of the Pali Canon?

They cite evidence such as the technology described matching the Buddha's era, the absence of references to King Ashoka (suggesting pre-Ashokan origin), and descriptions of political geography reflecting India at the time of the Buddha.

What are the three categories of scholarly views concerning the authorship of the Pali Canon?

Scholarly views generally fall into three categories: attribution to the Buddha and his early followers, attribution to the period of pre-sectarian Buddhism, or agnosticism due to the lack of definitive evidence from the time of the Buddha.

What is the significance of the 'Calcutta-Bairat edict' of Ashoka in relation to the Pali Canon?

The edict lists several works from the Canon, such as Munigatha and Laghulovada, which scholars identify with specific suttas, providing evidence that some of these texts were already fixed by Ashoka's reign (304–232 BC).

What challenges exist regarding the survival of ancient Pali manuscripts?

The climate in Theravada countries is not conducive to the preservation of manuscripts, meaning that apart from brief inscriptions and a fragment from Nepal, the oldest known manuscripts date from the late 15th century, with very little surviving from before the 18th century.

What is the Pali Text Society edition of the Canon, and what is its format?

The Pali Text Society edition, published between 1877 and 1927 (with some volumes later replaced), is available in Roman script and consists of 57 volumes, including indexes.

What criticism has been leveled against the style of many English translations of the Pali Canon?

The style of many translations has been criticized as 'Buddhist Hybrid English,' a term coined by Paul Griffiths to describe language comprehensible mainly to specialists and written by and for Buddhologists.

What are the five subdivisions, or Nikayas, of the Sutta Pitaka?

The Sutta Pitaka is divided into the Digha Nikaya (long discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (medium-length discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (grouped discourses), Anguttara Nikaya (numerical discourses), and Khuddaka Nikaya (a miscellaneous collection).

What is the traditional view on the meaning of 'abhidhamma' compared to the suttas?

Traditionally, 'abhidhamma' is considered the absolute teaching, while the suttas are seen as adapted to the listener's level of understanding. Most scholars view the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings found in the suttas.

How does the Pali Canon utilize Brahmanical terminology and concepts?

The Pali Canon incorporates many Brahmanical terms and concepts, sometimes to establish connections with Brahmanical beliefs and practices, and other times to draw unfavorable comparisons, highlighting the superiority of Buddhist teachings.

What are the other two main Buddhist canons in use today besides the Pali Canon?

The other two main Buddhist canons are the Chinese Buddhist Canon and the Tibetan Kangyur.

What is the Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka?

The Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka is the standard modern edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon, containing over 80,000 pages across a hundred major divisions, including texts from various early Buddhist schools and Mahayana sutras.

What is the significance of the Suttanipata in scholarly discussions about the earliest Buddhist texts?

Some scholars, particularly in Japan, consider the Suttanipata to be the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana.

What does the Mahavamsa state about the writing down of the Pali Canon?

According to the Mahavamsa, the Pali Canon was written down in Sri Lanka during the reign of King Vattagamani (1st century BCE) at the Fourth Buddhist Council.

What is the general scholarly agreement regarding the early books of the Pali Canon?

Scholars generally agree that the early books of the Canon likely include some later additions, although the precise dating and extent of these additions are debated.

What is the role of the Visuddhimagga in Theravada tradition?

The Visuddhimagga, authored by Buddhaghosa, serves as a comprehensive summary of the traditional Theravada interpretation of the Pali Canon and its doctrines.

What is the nature of the Abhidhamma Pitaka's content compared to other Buddhist schools?

The Abhidhamma Pitaka is a strictly Theravada collection and has significant differences from the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools, such as Mahayana.

What is the significance of the 'Sutta Central' website mentioned in the text?

Sutta Central is a website that provides free access to new translations of the entire Pali Canon's five Nikayas, made available by Bhikkhu Sujato and released into the public domain.

What are the seven books that constitute the Abhidhamma Pitaka?

The seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka are: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha, Puggalapannatti, Kathavatthu, Yamaka, and Patthana.

What does the term 'Tipiṭaka' mean in relation to the Pali Canon?

Tipiṭaka means 'three baskets,' referring to the three main categories of texts within the Pali Canon: the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka, which were traditionally kept in receptacles for palm-leaf manuscripts.

What is the significance of the Pali Canon's inclusion of teachings attributed to disciples of the Buddha?

The inclusion of teachings attributed to disciples, alongside those attributed to the Buddha, indicates that the Canon is not considered a literal word-for-word transcription of the Buddha's speech but rather a collection of teachings preserved by the community.

What is the scholarly debate regarding the language of the Buddha versus the language of the Pali Canon?

Scholars debate whether the Pali Canon accurately reflects the language spoken by the Buddha. While tradition holds Pali is Magadhi, linguistic analysis suggests it is closer to western Indian Prakrits, implying a possible transposition of the original teachings.

What does the phrase 'Thus have I heard' signify in the context of the Pali Canon?

The phrase 'Thus have I heard' (evam me sutam) is a traditional opening for many suttas, indicating that the discourse was heard by the disciple reciting it, often Ananda, and passed down through the oral tradition.

What is the role of commentaries (Atthakatha) and sub-commentaries (Tika) in the Theravada tradition?

Commentaries, compiled by monks like Buddhaghosa, explain the Pali Canon, often based on earlier lost materials. Sub-commentaries further elaborate on both the Canon and its commentaries, providing deeper interpretations within the Theravada tradition.

What is the significance of the 'Sixth Council Tipitaka' edition?

The Sixth Council Tipitaka, published in Rangoon between 1954-1956, is a significant edition in Burmese script, noted for having fewer variant readings than the Thai edition and serving as a basis for further electronic transcripts.

What is the nature of the 'Buddhist Hybrid English' criticized in translations of the Pali Canon?

'Buddhist Hybrid English' is a term for translations that are stylistically awkward and comprehensible primarily to specialists in Buddhist studies, rather than a general audience.

Pali Canon Wiki: The Pali Canon: A Repository of Ancient Buddhist Wisdom

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The Pali Canon

Definition and Significance

The Pali Canon represents the standard collection of scriptures within the Theravada Buddhist tradition. Preserved meticulously in the Pali language, it stands as the most complete extant compilation of early Buddhist texts. Its origins are traced primarily to the Tambapaññiya school, forming the foundational scriptural corpus for Theravada Buddhism.

Historical Transmission

Traditionally, the Canon was transmitted orally, beginning with the First Buddhist Council shortly after the Buddha's parinibbana. It was later committed to writing on palm leaves during the Fourth Buddhist Council in 29 BC, approximately 454 years after the Buddha's passing. This extensive oral tradition, reinforced by communal recitations, ensured the preservation of the teachings over centuries.

Linguistic Context

While Theravada tradition equates Pali with the language spoken by the Buddha in Magadha, linguistic scholarship suggests Pali is more closely related to Prakrit languages of western India. It is theorized that the original teachings, possibly in an eastern Indian language, were transposed into the western precursor of Pali before the Asokan era, indicating a complex linguistic evolution.

Origins and Development

Early Councils and Compilation

The First Buddhist Council is credited with the initial recitation and preservation of the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka. The oral tradition continued until the First Century BCE, when the Canon was first written down in Sri Lanka. Scholarly consensus suggests the Canon evolved over time, incorporating various strata of early and later texts, though precise dating remains a subject of academic discussion.

The Written Word

The commitment of the Canon to writing, particularly in Sri Lanka around the 1st century BCE, marked a significant transition. While oral recitation remained important, this act facilitated wider dissemination and preservation. The earliest textual fragments found date to the mid-5th to mid-6th century CE, indicating the long process of textual development and transmission.

Textual Strata and Redaction

Scholarly analysis indicates that the Pali Canon contains material from different periods, with some texts potentially dating back to the Buddha's time and others being later additions. The Sri Lankan version underwent significant redaction around the 5th or 6th century CE, nearly a millennium after the Buddha's passing, leading to scholarly debate about its direct lineage to the earliest teachings.

The Three Baskets

Vinaya Pitaka

The first "basket" focuses on the rules and discipline governing the monastic community (Sangha) for both monks and nuns. It details the origins of these rules, often through narratives of the Buddha's interactions, and provides explanations and analyses. It is divided into the Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka, and Parivara.

Sutta Pitaka

This is the largest "basket," comprising discourses, sermons, and religious poetry attributed to the Buddha and his immediate disciples. It is structured into five Nikayas: Digha (long discourses), Majjhima (medium-length discourses), Samyutta (grouped discourses), Anguttara (numerically arranged discourses), and Khuddaka (miscellaneous collection).

Abhidhamma Pitaka

The third "basket" offers a scholastic and systematic analysis of Buddhist doctrines, particularly concerning the nature of mind and phenomena. It consists of seven books: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha, Puggalapannatti, Kathavatthu, Yamaka, and Patthana. Scholars generally view this as a later, more systematized development of Buddhist thought.

Authorship Perspectives

Theravada Tradition

Within the Theravada tradition, the Pali Canon is largely considered the authentic word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), encompassing teachings from the Buddha himself and his early followers. This view emphasizes the conservative transmission of the core teachings, with minimal later modifications.

Scholarly Views

Academic scholars present varied perspectives. Some argue that the core teachings likely originate from the Buddha himself, while others suggest significant portions were developed by his immediate followers or during the pre-sectarian period. Certain scholars adopt an agnostic stance due to the temporal gap between the Buddha's life and the earliest surviving textual evidence.

Abhidhamma Composition

The Abhidhamma Pitaka, in particular, is seen by Western scholarship as likely originating around 300 BCE, possibly drawing from earlier lists and rubrics. While traditional accounts attribute parts of it to figures like Sariputra and include it in the First Buddhist Council, scholarly analysis points to its role in systematizing earlier teachings.

Manuscripts and Editions

Preservation Challenges

The tropical climate of Theravada countries has historically posed challenges to the preservation of manuscripts. Consequently, the oldest known manuscripts date from the late 15th century, with most surviving texts originating from the 18th century onwards. Early fragments, however, offer glimpses into earlier textual traditions.

Printed and Digital Forms

The first complete printed edition of the Pali Canon was published in Burma in 1900. Western scholarship has benefited from editions like the Pali Text Society (PTS) version in Roman script. Digitized versions, such as the PALITEXT database and resources from the Vipassana Research Institute, have made the Canon more accessible globally.

Translations and Accessibility

English Translations

Numerous English translations of the Pali Canon exist, with the Pali Text Society undertaking a significant effort. However, some scholars have noted that many early translations were unsatisfactory or poorly executed, sometimes described as "Buddhist Hybrid English." More recent translations, such as those by Bhikkhu Bodhi and Bhikkhu Sujato, are highly regarded and increasingly available.

Global Editions

Beyond English, the Canon has been published in various scripts and languages, including Thai, Burmese, Sinhalese, Khmer, and Dai. These diverse editions reflect the Canon's widespread influence and adaptation across different cultural contexts, with efforts continually made to improve accessibility through digital platforms.

Comparison with Other Canons

Chinese Buddhist Canon

The Chinese Buddhist Canon, notably the Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka, is a vast collection that includes Vinayas from various schools, analogous Āgamas (similar to Pali Nikāyas), and numerous Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna texts. While it shares some early Buddhist material with the Pali Canon, its Abhidharma sections and overall scope differ significantly.

Tibetan Kangyur

The Tibetan Kangyur comprises around a hundred volumes and contains versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and parts of other early texts. However, its compilation occurred later, resulting in fewer direct parallels to the earliest Pali texts compared to the Chinese Canon. It prominently features Mahāyāna sutras and Vajrayāna tantras.

Usage and Interpretation

Brahmanical Influences

The Pali Canon incorporates various Brahmanical terminology and concepts, often used to draw parallels or contrasts with Buddhist teachings. For instance, analogies involving the Agnihotra sacrifice and the Savitrī meter appear, sometimes to highlight the superiority of Buddhist practices, such as the cultivation of inner light over external rituals.

Practice and Study

While the Canon provides the doctrinal framework, its practical application varies. Memorization and recitation of texts like the Paritta remain significant practices. The traditional Theravada interpretation, elaborated in commentaries by figures like Buddhaghosa, offers a systematic understanding, summarized in works like the Visuddhimagga.

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References

"If some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha's teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words".

ÃÄá¹amoli & Warder 1982, p. xxix.

ÃÄá¹amoli & Warder 1982, p. xxxix.

GrÃ¶nbold 1984, p. 12 (as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete).

Marston, John (2004). History, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements in Cambodia, p. 77. University of Hawaii Press.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Pali Canon Wikipedia page

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The Pali Canon

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The Pali Canon ☸️

📜 Definition and Significance

⏳ Historical Transmission

🌍 Linguistic Context

Origins and Development 🌱

🏛️ Early Councils and Compilation

✍️ The Written Word

📜 Textual Strata and Redaction

The Three Baskets 🧺

⚖️ Vinaya Pitaka

🗣️ Sutta Pitaka

🧠 Abhidhamma Pitaka

Authorship Perspectives 👤

📜 Theravada Tradition

🧐 Scholarly Views

💡 Abhidhamma Composition

Manuscripts and Editions 📚

📜 Preservation Challenges

💻 Printed and Digital Forms

Translations and Accessibility 🌐

🇬🇧 English Translations

🌏 Global Editions

Comparison with Other Canons ⚖️

🇨🇳 Chinese Buddhist Canon

tibetan Tibetan Kangyur

Usage and Interpretation 💡

🕉️ Brahmanical Influences

🧘 Practice and Study

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Pali Canon

Definition and Significance

Historical Transmission

Linguistic Context

Origins and Development

Early Councils and Compilation

The Written Word

Textual Strata and Redaction

The Three Baskets

Vinaya Pitaka

Sutta Pitaka

Abhidhamma Pitaka

Authorship Perspectives

Theravada Tradition

Scholarly Views

Abhidhamma Composition

Manuscripts and Editions

Preservation Challenges

Printed and Digital Forms

Translations and Accessibility

English Translations

Global Editions

Comparison with Other Canons

Chinese Buddhist Canon

Tibetan Kangyur

Usage and Interpretation

Brahmanical Influences

Practice and Study

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice