What was the Parsley massacre, and when did it occur?

The Parsley massacre, also known by its Spanish name 'el corte' or Haitian Creole 'kout kouto-a', was a mass killing of Haitians living in the Dominican Republic. This event took place over a week, from October 2 to October 8, 1937.

Where did the Parsley massacre primarily take place?

The Parsley massacre occurred in the Dominican Republic's northwestern frontier and in certain contiguous parts of the Cibao region. These areas were populated by Haitians living in settlements and on occupied land.

Who ordered the Parsley massacre?

The Parsley massacre was carried out on the direct orders of the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo. He was a strong proponent of anti-Haitianism, a sentiment that fueled the violence.

What were the primary weapons used by the Dominican Army during the massacre?

During the Parsley massacre, Dominican Army troops utilized a range of weapons, including Krag rifles, machetes, shovels, knives, and bayonets to carry out the killings.

What is the estimated death toll of the Parsley massacre?

Estimates for the number of deaths during the Parsley massacre vary. Some sources suggest between 17,000 and 35,000 people were killed, while others place the figure between 14,000 and 40,000 Haitians.

What was the stated motive behind the Parsley massacre?

The stated motive for the Parsley massacre was Rafael Trujillo's anti-black racism and his policy of Antihaitianismo. It was reportedly triggered by complaints from Dominican borderland residents about cattle and crop theft by Haitians.

How did the Parsley massacre affect the Haitian population in the Dominican frontier?

As a direct result of the massacre, nearly the entire Haitian population living in the Dominican frontier was either killed or compelled to flee across the border into Haiti. This drastically reduced the Haitian presence in those regions.

What happened to many Haitians attempting to flee across the Dajabón River?

Many Haitians attempting to escape to Haiti across the Dajabón River, which forms part of the border between the two countries, were pursued and killed by Dominican troops. Accounts describe the river running with blood and corpses for days due to the violence.

What is the origin of the name 'Parsley massacre'?

The popular name 'Parsley massacre' is derived from a shibboleth, a linguistic test, that Dominican soldiers allegedly used. They would ask civilians to pronounce the Spanish word for parsley, 'perejil', and failure to do so correctly, due to linguistic differences, would mark them as Haitian and lead to their death.

Is the 'parsley' shibboleth story widely accepted by scholars?

While the 'parsley' shibboleth story is the popular origin of the massacre's name, most scholars believe this aspect to be mythical. Research suggests that the explanation is based more on legend than on documented personal accounts.

What other names are used to refer to the Parsley massacre?

The Parsley massacre is also known by its Spanish name, 'el corte', meaning 'the cutting', and in Haitian Creole as 'kout kouto-a', meaning 'the stabbing'. It is also referred to in French as 'Massacre du Persil' and in Spanish as 'Masacre del Perejil'.

What role did Rafael Trujillo play in the events leading up to the massacre?

Rafael Trujillo, the Dominican dictator, actively promoted anti-Haitian sentiment and made his intentions clear in a speech on October 2, 1937, stating that complaints about Haitian depredations would be remedied. He then commanded his army to carry out the killings.

Describe some of the brutal methods used during the massacre.

The brutality of the massacre was extreme. Dominican troops reportedly threw Haitian babies into the air to be caught on bayonets, beheaded thousands, and threw bound victims into the Atlantic Ocean from Monte Cristi to drown. Survivors recounted accounts of family members being hacked with machetes and strangled.

What does historian Lauren Derby claim about the victims of the massacre?

According to historian Lauren Derby, a significant portion of those who died were actually born in the Dominican Republic and were part of established Haitian communities in the borderlands, challenging the narrative that they were solely foreign migrants.

How did the geography and infrastructure of the Dominican Republic contribute to the situation?

Inadequate roadways connecting the borderlands to major Dominican cities limited communication and trade, causing commercial surpluses to move towards Haiti. This lack of integration made the border regions less controlled and potentially more vulnerable, which the Dominican government viewed as a liability.

What was the initial reaction of the Haitian government to the massacre?

Initially, Haitian President Sténio Vincent prohibited discussion of the massacre and issued a statement asserting that relations between Haiti and the Dominican Republic were undamaged. This stance was influenced by his cooperative relationship and financial support from the Trujillo government.

What led to the Haitian government seeking an international investigation?

After a failed coup attempt against President Sténio Vincent, and following two years of relative silence on the massacre, public protests in Port-au-Prince pressured his administration. This led Vincent to seek an international investigation and mediation regarding the killings.

How did Rafael Trujillo respond to the call for an international investigation?

Rafael Trujillo refused to submit to an international inquiry into the massacre. Instead, he offered an indemnity payment to Haiti as a way to resolve the issue without external scrutiny.

What reparations were eventually agreed upon, and what was their impact?

The United States, along with Haitian President Vincent, sought reparations totaling US$750,000. The Dominican government paid $525,000, but due to corruption within the Haitian bureaucracy, the survivors ultimately received only a minimal amount, averaging about 2 cents each.

How did the Dominican government frame the massacre in the reparations agreement?

In the agreement signed in Washington, D.C., the Dominican government defended the massacre as a necessary response to illegal immigration by 'undesirable' Haitians. They explicitly recognized 'no responsibility whatsoever' for the killings and used the agreement to establish new laws prohibiting migration between the two countries.

What development initiatives did Trujillo undertake after the massacre?

Following the Parsley massacre, Trujillo focused on developing the borderlands. This included modernizing the areas with hospitals, schools, military barracks, housing projects, and constructing a highway to better connect them with the Dominican Republic's major cities and urban centers.

What border policies were enacted after 1937?

After 1937, the Dominican Republic implemented stricter border policies. These included quotas limiting the number of Haitians allowed to enter the country and a generally discriminatory approach, leading to continued deportations and killings of Haitians, with many refugees dying from harsh conditions.

What evidence confirmed the Dominican Army's direct involvement?

U.S. sources confirmed the direct involvement of the Dominican Army by finding bullets from Krag rifles in the bodies of victims. Since only Dominican soldiers had access to these specific rifles, it eliminated the possibility of civilian perpetrators being solely responsible.

What was Trujillo's ultimate goal in orchestrating the Parsley massacre?

Trujillo's calculated action in the Parsley massacre aimed to homogenize the Dominican Republic, particularly its border regions. His goal was to integrate these areas socially, politically, and economically into the nation and to expel the Haitian population from the country.

How did Trujillo's exiled opponents react to the massacre?

Some of Trujillo's exiled political opponents publicly condemned the massacres. Four prominent figures—Rafael Brache, José Manuel Jimenes, Juan Isidro Jimenes Grullón, and Buenaventura Sánchez—were subsequently declared 'unworthy Dominicans' and 'traitors to the Homeland' for their criticisms.

What is the significance of the term 'genocide' in relation to the Parsley massacre?

The Parsley massacre is classified as a genocide by some sources, indicating a systematic intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group. The actions taken by Trujillo's regime align with the definition of genocide due to the targeted nature and scale of the killings.

What were the estimated numbers of injured individuals?

According to Haitian historian Jean Price-Mars, there were 2,419 recorded injuries resulting from the Parsley massacre.

What percentage of the Dominican Republic's Haitian population may have been killed?

The massacre potentially resulted in the deaths of between 23% and 60% of the Haitian population residing in the Dominican Republic at the time, indicating a devastating impact on the community.

What linguistic challenges might have contributed to the shibboleth test's effectiveness?

The Spanish word 'perejil' (parsley) presents pronunciation challenges for speakers of French and Haitian Creole. These languages often use a uvular approximant or voiced velar fricative for the 'r' sound, and a different pronunciation for 'j', making it difficult for Haitians to replicate the Spanish alveolar tap/trill and velar fricative, thus potentially identifying them.

What is the geographic location of the Dominican Republic relative to Haiti on the island of Hispaniola?

The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island of Hispaniola, while Haiti occupies the western three-eighths. This shared island geography has historically influenced their relationship and migration patterns.

What was the approximate population of the Dominican Republic in 1935?

In 1935, the Dominican Republic had a population of approximately 10 million inhabitants, according to the provided text. This figure is relevant when considering the proportion of the Haitian population killed during the massacre.

What was the approximate population of Haiti around the time of the massacre?

Haiti, occupying the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, had a population roughly equivalent to the Dominican Republic's, with an estimated density of 200 people per square kilometer. This indicates a densely populated nation sharing the island.

What specific complaint did Dominican citizens voice that Trujillo cited as a reason for the massacre?

Dominican citizens complained to Trujillo about 'depredations by Haitians living among them,' specifically mentioning thefts of cattle, provisions, and fruits. Trujillo cited these complaints as a justification for his actions.

What does the term 'Antihaitianismo' refer to in the context of the Dominican Republic?

Antihaitianismo refers to a deep-seated sentiment and political ideology within the Dominican Republic that expresses hostility, discrimination, and prejudice against Haitians and Haitian culture. Rafael Trujillo was a prominent proponent of this ideology.

What was the significance of Trujillo's speech in Dajabón on October 2, 1937?

Trujillo's speech in Dajabón on October 2, 1937, was significant because it publicly signaled his intention to address the perceived issues with the Haitian population. He explicitly stated that 'remedies' were being implemented and that 'hundreds of Haitians are now dead,' indicating the start of the massacre.

How did the Dominican Army's deployment strategy potentially facilitate the massacre?

The Dominican Army deployed troops mostly from areas outside the northwestern frontier and Cibao regions. This strategy likely ensured that the soldiers were less personally connected to the victims and potentially more willing to carry out orders without hesitation.

What role did alcohol play in the execution of the massacre?

According to U.S. legation informants, many Dominican soldiers confessed that they needed to get 'blind drunk' to perform the 'ghastly slaughter,' suggesting that alcohol was used to overcome inhibitions and facilitate the brutal acts.

What was the 'possession in fact' or 'usucapion' concept mentioned in relation to Haitian land ownership?

The text mentions that in Haiti, historically, there wasn't a strong system of property rights, leading to a practice where 'the land belongs to whoever occupies it.' This concept, known legally as 'possession in fact' or 'usucapion', relates to how land tenure was understood, potentially impacting claims and conflicts in the borderlands.

How did Trujillo's regime use the international response to the massacre to its advantage?

Trujillo's regime leveraged the international inquiry and subsequent agreement by framing the massacre as a response to illegal immigration and denying responsibility for the killings. This allowed him to legitimize his anti-Haitian policies and border control measures on an international stage.

What impact did the massacre have on the perception of the borderlands within the Dominican Republic?

After the massacre, Trujillo actively worked to integrate the borderlands more closely with the rest of the Dominican Republic. This involved modernization efforts and infrastructure development, aiming to bring the region more firmly into the nation's social, political, and economic fold.

What were the long-term consequences for Haitian migration to the Dominican Republic after 1937?

Following the Parsley massacre, the Dominican Republic enacted strict quotas on Haitian immigration and implemented a rigorous border policy. This significantly restricted entry and continued to lead to deportations and violence against Haitians.

What specific historical events are listed as 'See also' related to the Parsley massacre?

Related historical events listed include the 1804 Haiti massacre, the Beheadings of Moca, Dominican Republic–Haiti relations, the history of both the Dominican Republic and Haiti, human rights issues in both countries, and lists of massacres in both nations, as well as racism in the Dominican Republic and the concept of a shibboleth.

What is the significance of the term 'el corte' in relation to the massacre?

'El corte', meaning 'the cutting' in Spanish, is one of the names used by Dominicans to refer to the Parsley massacre. It likely alludes to the brutal methods, such as machete attacks, used during the killings.

What is the significance of the term 'kout kouto-a' in relation to the massacre?

'Kout kouto-a', meaning 'the stabbing' or 'the knife' in Haitian Creole, is another name used for the Parsley massacre. This name also reflects the violent nature of the killings, particularly the use of bladed weapons.

What does the citation note regarding 'possession in fact' or 'usucapion' imply about the victims?

The note on 'possession in fact' or 'usucapion' suggests that many Haitians living in the Dominican Republic may have considered the land they occupied as theirs through long-term use, even without formal titles. This concept highlights the complex relationship Haitians had with the land they inhabited, potentially complicating claims of them being solely 'illegal' occupants.

What was the role of the U.S. in the aftermath of the massacre?

The U.S. played a role in seeking reparations for the victims. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was involved in the negotiations that led to the Dominican government paying a portion of the requested indemnity to Haiti.

How did the Dominican government's actions following the massacre contribute to its legacy?

Trujillo's regime used the aftermath of the massacre to solidify its control and legitimize its policies. By developing the borderlands and implementing strict immigration quotas, Trujillo aimed to create a more ethnically homogenous Dominican Republic and prevent future Haitian migration.

What does the reference to '23%-60% of the Haitian population' killed signify?

This statistic indicates the catastrophic scale of the Parsley massacre, suggesting that a very substantial proportion of the Haitian community living in the Dominican Republic was eliminated. It underscores the event's nature as a genocide, aiming to destroy a significant part of the targeted group.

What is the significance of the 'See also' section listing the '1804 Haiti massacre'?

The inclusion of the '1804 Haiti massacre' in the 'See also' section suggests a historical context of violence and animosity between the two nations or within Haiti itself. It implies a pattern of mass violence that predates or parallels the Parsley massacre.

Parsley Massacre Wiki: Hispaniola's Shadow: An Examination of the Parsley Massacre

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Overview

A State-Sponsored Atrocity

The Parsley Massacre, known in Spanish as el corte ('the cutting') and in Haitian Creole as kout kouto-a ('the stabbing'), was a systematic mass killing of Haitians residing in the Dominican Republic. Occurring primarily in October 1937, it targeted Haitian communities along the northwestern frontier and in parts of the Cibao region.

Targeted Population

The victims were predominantly Haitians living in settlements and on occupied land within the Dominican Republic. The massacre resulted in the displacement or death of virtually the entire Haitian population in the frontier zones, with many perishing while attempting to flee across the Dajabón River.

Estimated Toll

Estimates for the number of deaths vary significantly, ranging from 14,000 to over 40,000 individuals. Some analyses suggest that between 23% and 60% of the Haitian population in the Dominican Republic may have been killed, highlighting the catastrophic scale of the event.

Historical Context

Dominican-Haitian Relations

Relations between the Dominican Republic and Haiti have historically been complex, marked by territorial disputes and competition for resources on the island of Hispaniola. The period leading up to 1937 saw significant migration of Haitians to the Dominican Republic in search of work, exacerbating existing tensions and contributing to anti-Haitian sentiment.

Migration Patterns

Between 1910 and 1930, extensive migration of Haitians to the Dominican Republic and Cuba occurred. The Dominican Republic, occupying five-eighths of Hispaniola, experienced a substantial influx, which further complicated the relationship with Haiti, situated on the western three-eighths of the island.

Borderlands and Governance

The Dominican government perceived the loosely controlled borderlands as a security liability, potentially serving as a base for revolutionary groups. Limited infrastructure connecting these frontier areas to major Dominican cities also meant that local economic activity often oriented towards Haiti, further complicating national integration.

Trujillo's Role

Ideology and Orders

Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo was a fervent proponent of antihaitianismo, a deep-seated anti-Haitian racism. On October 2, 1937, during a celebration in Dajabón, Trujillo declared his intention to resolve complaints about Haitian depredations, stating, "Three hundred Haitians are now dead in Bánica. This remedy will continue." He subsequently ordered his army to eliminate Haitians from the country's northwestern frontier.

Justification and Policy

Trujillo's regime framed the massacre as a response to illegal immigration and the perceived threat of "undesirable" Haitians. This narrative was later used to legitimize the killings and implement strict border policies, including quotas and deportations, effectively using the international inquiry into the massacre to reinforce his exclusionary agenda.

Methods of Violence

Brutal Execution

Between October 2 and October 8, 1937, Dominican troops, often brought in from other regions, carried out the massacre using rifles, machetes, shovels, knives, and bayonets. Reports detail extreme brutality, including the beheading of thousands and the throwing of babies onto bayonets.

Disposal of Victims

Many victims were taken to ports like Monte Cristi and thrown into the Atlantic Ocean, their hands and feet bound, sometimes after being wounded to attract sharks. The Dajabón River, dividing the two nations, reportedly ran with blood and corpses for days as soldiers pursued fleeing Haitians.

Soldier's Testimony

U.S. legation informants reported that many Dominican soldiers confessed to needing to be heavily intoxicated ("blind drunk") to carry out the horrific acts of slaughter, indicating the psychological toll and the extreme nature of the orders.

The "Parsley" Test

Linguistic Identification

The massacre gained its popular name from the alleged use of the Spanish word perejil ('parsley') as a shibboleth. Soldiers would present a sprig of parsley to civilians and demand they pronounce the word. The ability to correctly articulate the Spanish alveolar tap/trill 'r' and the 'j' sound was used to distinguish Dominicans from Haitians, whose native languages (French and Haitian Creole) have different phonetic structures.

The difficulty for speakers of French and Haitian Creole in pronouncing the Spanish alveolar 'r' and the velar fricative 'j' is well-documented. While the parsley test is widely cited, most scholars suggest it may be more myth than a consistently applied method, based on limited personal accounts and the focus of historical research on the broader patterns of state violence.

Aftermath and Reparations

Initial Silence and Protest

Initially, Haitian President Sténio Vincent suppressed discussion of the massacre, seeking to maintain good relations with Trujillo's regime, which provided financial support. However, public outcry in Haiti following a failed coup led Vincent to seek international mediation and an investigation.

Reparations and Accountability

Trujillo offered an indemnity rather than submit to an inquiry. Ultimately, under pressure from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Dominican government paid $525,000 in reparations to Haiti. However, due to corruption within the Haitian bureaucracy, survivors received minimal compensation, often mere cents per victim.

Legal Defense and Policy

In the reparations agreement, the Dominican government defended the massacre as a response to illegal immigration and disclaimed responsibility for the killings. Trujillo used this moment to formalize policies restricting Haitian migration and to develop the borderlands, integrating them more closely with the Dominican Republic's core territories.

Enduring Legacy

Historical Memory

The Parsley Massacre remains a deeply sensitive and contentious event in Dominican and Haitian history. While the term "parsley massacre" gained prominence in English-speaking media decades later, scholars note that its prevalence in contemporary accounts from the era is limited, with many historians emphasizing the broader context of state-sponsored violence and anti-Haitian policies.

Evidence of Perpetrators

Despite attempts by some to attribute the killings to civilian actions, U.S. sources confirmed that bullets from Krag rifles, exclusively used by the Dominican Army, were found in victims' bodies. This evidence firmly established the state's direct involvement in the massacre.

Ongoing Impact

The massacre significantly impacted Dominican-Haitian relations and contributed to a climate of fear and discrimination against Haitians in the Dominican Republic. The event continues to be a subject of historical research, memory, and reconciliation efforts.

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References

A full list of references for this article are available at the Parsley massacre Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date. The Parsley Massacre is a sensitive historical event involving significant violence and human rights abuses.

This is not historical or legal advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for professional historical research, analysis, or consultation. Always refer to scholarly works and primary sources for a comprehensive understanding of such events. Never disregard professional advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website.

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Hispaniola's Shadow

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Overview 📜

⚔️ A State-Sponsored Atrocity

🎯 Targeted Population

🔢 Estimated Toll

Historical Context 🌍

🤝 Dominican-Haitian Relations

📈 Migration Patterns

🚧 Borderlands and Governance

Trujillo's Role 👤

🗣️ Ideology and Orders

📜 Justification and Policy

Methods of Violence 🔪

🗡️ Brutal Execution

🌊 Disposal of Victims

🍺 Soldier's Testimony

The "Parsley" Test 🗣️

🌿 Linguistic Identification

Aftermath and Reparations 🕊️

🤫 Initial Silence and Protest

💰 Reparations and Accountability

🏛️ Legal Defense and Policy

Enduring Legacy ⏳

⚖️ Historical Memory

🔍 Evidence of Perpetrators

💔 Ongoing Impact

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Overview

A State-Sponsored Atrocity

Targeted Population

Estimated Toll

Historical Context

Dominican-Haitian Relations

Migration Patterns

Borderlands and Governance

Trujillo's Role

Ideology and Orders

Justification and Policy

Methods of Violence

Brutal Execution

Disposal of Victims

Soldier's Testimony

The "Parsley" Test

Linguistic Identification

Aftermath and Reparations

Initial Silence and Protest

Reparations and Accountability

Legal Defense and Policy

Enduring Legacy

Historical Memory

Evidence of Perpetrators

Ongoing Impact

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice