Paul the Apostle: Architect of Early Christianity
An academic exploration into the life, ministry, and enduring legacy of Saul of Tarsus, a pivotal figure in the spread of Christianity.
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Introduction
The Apostle to the Gentiles
Paul, originally known as Saul of Tarsus, was a Christian apostle (c. 5 – c. 64/65 AD) instrumental in disseminating the teachings of Jesus throughout the first-century world. Though not one of the original Twelve Apostles, his contributions to the New Testament and his foundational role in establishing numerous Christian communities across Asia Minor and Europe mark him as one of the most significant figures of the Apostolic Age.
From Persecutor to Proclaimer
Before his transformative conversion experience, Paul was a zealous Pharisee actively engaged in the persecution of early disciples of Jesus. Following a profound vision of the ascended Christ on the road to Damascus, he was blinded, healed, and subsequently baptized. This pivotal event initiated his immediate proclamation that Jesus of Nazareth was the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God, fundamentally altering the trajectory of his life and the nascent Christian movement.
Enduring Theological Legacy
Paul's epistles remain foundational texts for Christian theology, worship, and pastoral practice across Latin, Protestant, Eastern Catholic, and Orthodox traditions. His influence is both pervasive in scope and profound in impact, shaping doctrines of salvation, Christology, and ecclesiology. Modern scholarship continues to re-evaluate his legacy, with movements like "Paul Within Judaism" emphasizing his Jewish roots in line with the original Jerusalem disciples, challenging earlier interpretations that sometimes portrayed him as introducing pagan or Hellenistic themes.
Nomenclature
Saul of Tarsus
Paul's original Jewish name was "Saul" (Hebrew: Sha'ul), a name potentially chosen in honor of the biblical King Saul, who, like Paul, belonged to the Tribe of Benjamin. Concurrently, he bore the Latin name Paulus, meaning "small," which was not a consequence of his conversion but rather a second name used for communication within the broader Greco-Roman world. This dual naming convention was common among Jews of that era, facilitating interaction across cultural and linguistic divides.
The Divine Address
During his profound conversion experience on the road to Damascus, Jesus addressed him as "Saul, Saul" in "the Hebrew tongue," as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus," and Ananias himself greeted him as "Brother Saul." These instances underscore his original identity before his full embrace of his mission to the Gentiles.
Adopting "Paul"
The transition to being called "Paul" is first noted in Acts 13:9, on the island of Cyprus, significantly after his conversion. This adoption of his Roman name, Paulus, reflected his strategic missionary approach: to engage people in a relatable language and style, putting them at ease as he presented the Christian message. This method, as articulated in 1 Corinthians 9:19–23, highlights his adaptability in reaching diverse audiences.
Primary Sources
Biblical Narratives
The principal sources for understanding Paul's life and ministry are his own epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, both integral parts of the New Testament. While Paul's letters offer invaluable autobiographical insights, they provide limited details about his pre-conversion life. Conversely, Acts furnishes a more extensive narrative of his travels, preaching, and miracles, though it notably omits certain aspects, such as his probable execution in Rome. Scholars continue to analyze the relationship between these two accounts, noting both their complementary nature and occasional discrepancies, particularly regarding the frequency of his visits to the Jerusalem church.
Early Christian Testimonies
Beyond the New Testament, several early Christian writings offer additional perspectives on Paul and his works. These include:
- Clement of Rome's epistle to the Corinthians (late 1st/early 2nd century).
- Ignatius of Antioch's epistles to the Romans and Ephesians (early 2nd century).
- Polycarp's epistle to the Philippians (early 2nd century).
- Eusebius's Historia Ecclesiae (early 4th century).
Early Life & Formation
Tarsus and Roman Citizenship
Paul was likely born between 5 BC and 5 AD in Tarsus, a prominent city in the Roman province of Cilicia. Tarsus was a significant center of trade on the Mediterranean coast, renowned for its academy and influence in Asia Minor since the Hellenistic era. Paul's birthright as a Roman citizen is noted in the Acts of the Apostles, a status that afforded him certain legal protections and privileges. Some theories suggest his ancestors might have been freedmen, gaining citizenship upon emancipation.
Pharisaic Education
Describing himself as "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee," Paul hailed from a devout Jewish family deeply committed to Pharisaic traditions. While still young, he was sent to Jerusalem to study under Gamaliel, one of history's most esteemed teachers of Jewish law. Although modern scholarship affirms his education in Jerusalem, it suggests he was not necessarily preparing for a career as a Jewish law scholar and likely had no direct contact with the Hillelite school.
Linguistic & Philosophical Acumen
Paul was fluent in Koine Greek, the language in which he composed his epistles, though Aramaic was likely his first language. His writings frequently demonstrate a profound engagement with Stoic philosophy, employing Stoic terminology and metaphors. This intellectual breadth allowed him to effectively communicate the Gospel and articulate his Christology to his new Gentile converts, bridging cultural and philosophical divides.
The Damascus Conversion
A Zealous Persecutor
Prior to his conversion, Paul (then Saul) was an ardent persecutor of early Christians, particularly Hellenized diaspora Jewish believers who had returned to Jerusalem. His actions were likely fueled by their perceived anti-Temple stance, distinguishing them from "Hebrews" who continued to participate in the Temple cult. Paul himself attests to persecuting Christians "beyond measure," though the specific forms of this persecution are not explicitly detailed in his letters.
The Road to Damascus
Paul's conversion, dated between 31–36 AD, is famously recounted in the Acts of the Apostles. While en route to Damascus to arrest Christians, he experienced a blinding vision of the ascended Jesus, who challenged him with the words, "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?" This encounter left him sightless for three days, during which he neither ate nor drank, dedicating himself to prayer. His sight was miraculously restored by Ananias of Damascus, after which Paul was baptized and immediately began proclaiming Jesus as the Son of God.
A Direct Revelation
Paul consistently asserted that he received the Gospel not through human instruction but directly "by the revelation of Jesus Christ." This claim underscored his independence from the Jerusalem community, though he affirmed agreement with them on the core tenets of the Gospel. His personal experience of the risen Christ became the bedrock of his apostolic authority and the driving force behind his mission to the Gentiles, often validated by the persecutions he endured for his faith.
Missionary Journeys
First Journey: Cyprus & Asia Minor
Commissioned by the Antioch community, Paul embarked on his first missionary journey (traditionally dated 46–49 AD) with Barnabas. Their travels took them to Cyprus, where Paul notably rebuked and blinded Elymas the magician. They then proceeded to southern Asia Minor, including Perga and Pisidian Antioch. In Pisidian Antioch, Paul's sermon in the synagogue, recounting Israelite history and introducing Jesus as the Messiah, led to a significant gathering of both Jews and "God-fearing" Gentiles. Faced with opposition from influential Jews, Paul declared a pivotal shift in his mission, focusing henceforth on the Gentiles.
Council & Antioch Incident
A crucial meeting, the Council of Jerusalem (c. 49 AD), addressed the contentious issue of whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised. Paul, alongside Barnabas, presented his mission to the Gentiles, which was ultimately affirmed by the "Pillars of the Church"—Peter, James, and John. Despite this agreement, Paul later publicly confronted Peter in Antioch over his reluctance to share meals with Gentile Christians who did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs. This "Incident at Antioch" highlighted the ongoing tensions regarding Jewish law and Gentile inclusion, with Paul asserting Peter was "clearly in the wrong."
Second Journey: Macedonia & Greece
Following a disagreement with Barnabas over John Mark, Paul commenced his second journey (late Autumn 49 AD) with Silas and later Timothy. Guided by a vision of a Macedonian man, they crossed into Europe, establishing churches in Philippi (where Paul and Silas were miraculously freed from prison, leading to the jailor's conversion), Berea, Athens (where Paul preached to intellectuals at the Areopagus), and Corinth. This journey marked a significant expansion of Christianity into the Hellenistic world.
Third Journey: Ephesus & Achaea
Paul's third journey involved extensive ministry in Galatia and Phrygia, followed by a nearly three-year stay in Ephesus, a vital center of early Christianity. Here, he performed numerous miracles and organized missionary activities, though his ministry eventually led to a pro-Artemis riot. During this period, he authored several letters to the Corinthian church and likely the Epistle to the Philippians. He then traveled through Macedonia and spent three months in Achaea (likely Corinth, 56–57 AD), during which he dictated his Epistle to the Romans, before returning to Jerusalem.
Conjectured Spanish Mission
Early Christian writers, including Clement I, John Chrysostom, and Cyril of Jerusalem, suggest that Paul's missionary endeavors extended beyond Rome to Spain, reaching the "extremity of the west." The Muratorian fragment also alludes to his journey to Spain. While not explicitly detailed in the canonical New Testament, this tradition posits a further period of ministry after his initial Roman imprisonment, potentially involving a return to Greece and Asia Minor before a final arrest and execution in Rome.
Journey to Rome
Last Visit & Arrest
In 57 AD, Paul arrived in Jerusalem for his fifth and final visit, bearing a collection of money for the local Christian community. Despite an initial warm reception, he was warned by James and the elders about a growing reputation for being "against the Law." To demonstrate his adherence to Jewish customs, Paul underwent a purification ritual. However, "Jews from Asia" accused him of defiling the Temple by bringing Gentiles into it, leading to his seizure by an angry mob and subsequent arrest by a Roman tribune. His assertion of Roman citizenship prevented flogging, and after causing a division between Pharisees and Sadducees before the council, he was transferred to Caesarea for his safety.
Shipwreck & Arrival
After two years under Governor Felix's custody in Caesarea, and with the appointment of a new governor, Porcius Festus, Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to "appeal unto Caesar." This initiated his journey to Rome. During the voyage, Paul was shipwrecked on Melita, identified as modern-day Malta. The islanders showed him "unusual kindness," and a notable incident involved a poisonous snake biting Paul without causing him harm, which the locals interpreted as a sign of divine favor. From Malta, he continued his journey to Rome via Syracuse, Rhegium, and Puteoli.
Roman Imprisonment
Paul finally arrived in Rome around 60 AD, where, according to traditional accounts, he spent two years under house arrest. The narrative of Acts concludes with Paul actively preaching the Gospel from his rented home in Rome while awaiting trial. While Irenaeus in the 2nd century suggested Peter and Paul were founders of the Roman church, Acts portrays Paul in a supporting role, focusing on his continued ministry and evangelism during this period of confinement.
Death & Martyrdom
Accounts of His End
Paul's death is generally believed to have occurred after the Great Fire of Rome in July 64 AD, but before the end of Emperor Nero's reign in 68 AD. The Acts of the Apostles, despite detailing the martyrdoms of James and Stephen, concludes without mentioning Paul's death, an omission noted by scholars. Early Christian writers, however, provide consistent testimonies: Clement of Rome states Paul "bore his testimony before the rulers" and "departed from the world," which is widely interpreted as martyrdom. Ignatius of Antioch explicitly refers to Paul as "martyred," and Eusebius records that Paul was killed during the Neronian Persecution, often alongside Peter.
The Beheading Tradition
Church tradition, supported by figures like Sulpicius Severus and Lactantius, holds that Paul was beheaded in Rome, while Peter was crucified. Jerome further specifies that Paul was executed in the "fourteenth year of Nero" on the same day as Peter, and buried on the Ostian Way. A later legend recounts that his martyrdom took place at the Aquae Salviae, where his severed head bounced three times, each impact giving rise to a spring of water, leading to the site being named "San Paolo alle Tre Fontane" (St Paul at the Three Fountains). The apocryphal Acts of Paul also describe his martyrdom and burial.
Relics & Discoveries
Burial Site & Basilica
According to the Liber Pontificalis, Paul's body was interred outside the walls of Rome, approximately two miles along the Via Ostiensis, on land owned by a Christian woman named Lucina. This site became historically significant, with Emperor Constantine the Great constructing the first church there in the 4th century. This structure was subsequently enlarged by Emperors Valentinian I, Valentinian II, Theodosius I, and Arcadius. The magnificent Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, as it stands today, was built on this venerated location in the early 19th century.
The Sarcophagus Discovery
In 2002, archaeological excavations around the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls unearthed an 8-foot-long marble sarcophagus bearing the inscription "PAULO APOSTOLO MART" (Paul apostle martyr). Vatican archaeologists, after completing the excavation in November 2006, declared this to be the tomb of Paul the Apostle. Further investigations in the early 2000s, aimed at making the tomb accessible to pilgrims, confirmed the sarcophagus's presence beneath the altar, with a viewing window created for visitors. In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI announced that radiocarbon dating of bone fragments found within the sarcophagus indicated a 1st or 2nd-century origin, aligning with Paul's traditional timeline. Additional artifacts, including purple linen laminated with gold, incense grains, and blue textiles, were also found, supporting the hypothesis of the remains belonging to Saint Paul, though some experts urged caution regarding definitive attribution.
Earliest Iconography
Further archaeological discoveries have shed light on Paul's early depiction. In 2009, the Vatican confirmed the discovery and restoration of the earliest known image of Saint Paul, dating to the early 4th century AD. This icon was found in the Catacomb of Saint Thekla, situated near the Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. By 2010, it was revealed that this ceiling painting was positioned adjacent to the oldest known depictions of Saint Peter, Saint John, and Saint Andrew, collectively surrounding an image of Christ as the Good Shepherd, offering a unique glimpse into early Christian artistic and theological traditions.
Church Tradition
Patristic Testimonies
Early Church Fathers consistently affirmed Paul's significant role and ultimate martyrdom. Clement of Rome, writing around 90 AD, recounts Paul's extensive ministry, his numerous imprisonments, stoning, and preaching "in the East and in the West," reaching "the farthest bounds of the West," before bearing "his testimony before the rulers" and departing "from the world." Eusebius of Caesarea, in the 4th century, explicitly states Paul was beheaded during Emperor Nero's reign, often linking his martyrdom with that of Peter, a tradition also echoed by Jerome, who details Paul's imprisonment, release for further ministry, and eventual execution.
Relics and Veneration
Various traditions surround Paul's relics and their veneration. It is held that Paul was initially interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas on the Via Appia before his remains were moved to the site of the present-day Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The skull of Saint Paul is claimed to reside in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, alongside that of Saint Peter, a tradition dating back to at least the 9th century. Pope Vitalian, in 665, is recorded by Bede as having given Paul's relics, including a cross made from his prison chains, to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain, highlighting the widespread veneration of his memory and physical remnants.
Feast Days
Liturgical Commemorations
Paul the Apostle is honored with several feast days across various Christian denominations, reflecting his profound impact:
- Roman Catholicism: Commemorates his conversion on 25 January and celebrates a solemnity for Saints Peter and Paul on 29 June.
- Eastern Orthodoxy: Observes fixed commemorations on 7 March (Synaxis of Dodecanese Islands Saints), 29 June (Apostles Peter and Paul), 30 June (Twelve Apostles), and 12 October (Synaxis of Athens Saints). Additionally, non-fixed days include synaxes for saints of Rhodes, Euboea, Gortyna and Arkadia (Crete), and Lefkada.
- Church of England: Celebrates the Conversion of Saint Paul as a Festival on 25 January and remembers Saints Peter and Paul with a Festival on 29 June.
- Lutheran Church Missouri Synod: Holds festivals for his conversion on 25 January and for Saints Peter and Paul on 29 June.
Patronage
Saintly Advocacy
Saint Paul is revered as the patron saint of numerous groups and locations, reflecting his diverse ministry and enduring spiritual influence:
- He is the principal patron saint of the island of Malta, where his arrival via shipwreck is celebrated as a public holiday on 10 February.
- Paul is also recognized as the patron saint of the city of London.
- More broadly, he is invoked as the patron of missionaries, theologians, evangelists, and Gentile Christians, acknowledging his foundational role in spreading the Gospel beyond Jewish communities and shaping Christian doctrine.
Physical Appearance
Apocryphal Descriptions
While the New Testament offers scant details regarding Paul's physical appearance, various apocryphal texts provide intriguing, albeit non-canonical, descriptions. The Acts of Paul portrays him as "A man of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked." The Latin version of the Acts of Paul and Thecla adds that he possessed a "red, florid face." Further accounts, such as The History of the Contending of Saint Paul, describe his countenance as "ruddy with the ruddiness of the skin of the pomegranate," while the Acts of Saint Peter notes his "bald and shining head, with red hair."
Historical Interpretations
These apocryphal descriptions were echoed by later Christian writers. Chrysostom, as summarized by Barnes, recorded Paul's stature as low, his body crooked, and his head bald. Lucian, in his Philopatris, described Paul as "corpore erat parvo, contracto, incurvo, tricubitali" (small, contracted, crooked, of three cubits, or approximately four feet six inches). Nicephorus further characterized him as a "little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow, with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled, and a bald head." Pseudo-Chrysostom similarly referred to him as "the man of three cubits," reinforcing the consistent portrayal of Paul as a figure of modest physical stature.
The Pauline Corpus
Canonical Epistles
Fourteen of the 27 books in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul, forming the core of the Pauline epistles. Scholarly consensus generally identifies seven of these as authentic, undisputed letters: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. These letters offer direct insight into Paul's theological thought, pastoral concerns, and the challenges faced by early Christian communities. The remaining six epistles—Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus—are subject to scholarly debate regarding their authorship, with some considered pseudepigraphical or written by followers in his name, drawing upon his teachings and surviving correspondence. The Epistle to the Hebrews is almost universally rejected as Pauline.
Theological Impact
Paul's writings are not merely historical documents but profound theological treatises that have shaped Christian doctrine for millennia. His articulation of concepts such as justification by faith, the nature of Christ's divinity, the role of the Holy Spirit, eschatology, and ecclesiology laid much of the groundwork for subsequent Christian thought. His letters address practical issues of Christian living, ethical conduct, and community organization, providing guidance that continues to resonate with believers and scholars alike. The depth and breadth of his theological contributions underscore his unparalleled influence as an "architect" of early Christianity.
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References
References
- 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death.
- The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in that order. Later in the same chapter, the team is referred to as Paul and his companions.
- Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been additional visits before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem.
- Harris 2003, p. 42: He was probably martyred in Rome about 64â65 AD
- Domar: the calendrical and liturgical cycle of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church, Armenian Orthodox Theological Research Institute, 2003, p. 446.
- Acts 22:3
- Brown, Fitzmyer & Murphy 1990, p. 920, col.2, Ch 60:2.
- Acts 22:25â29
- Lewis & Short 1879, Paulus: "a Roman surname (not a praenomen;)".
- Acts 9:4; 22:7; 26:14
- Acts 26:14
- Acts 9:11
- Acts 9:17; 22:13
- Acts 13:9
- 1 Corinthians 9:19â23
- John B. Polhill, 532; cf. Richard R. Losch, The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2005), 176â77.
- Philippians 3:5
- Acts 23:6
- Acts 23:16
- 2 Timothy 1:3
- Philippians 3:5â6
- Acts 18:1â3
- Acts 18:3
- Romans 16:4
- Acts 22:3
- Acts 7:58â60; 22:20
- 1 Corinthians 15:8
- Acts 9:4â5
- Acts 9:1â22
- Acts 9:17
- Acts 9:18
- Acts 9:20â22
- 2 Corinthians 11:32
- Galatians 1:17
- Galatians 1:13â24
- Galatians 4:24â25
- Galatians 1:11â16
- Galatians 1:22â24
- Galatians 2:1â10
- Acts 11:26
- Acts 13â14
- Acts 13:8â12
- Acts 13:13â48
- Acts 14:28
- Acts 15:2
- Galatians 2:1â10
- Acts 15:2,Galatians 2:1
- Galatians 2:9
- Acts 11:27â30
- Galatians 1:18â20
- Galatians 2:11â14
- Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 400.
- Acts 16:6â10
- Acts 16:5
- Acts 16:16â24
- Acts 16:25â40
- Acts 18:2
- Acts 18:18â21
- Acts 18:18
- Acts 18:19â21
- Acts 18:22â23
- Acts 18:21
- Acts 21:29
- Acts 20:34
- Acts 20:1â2
- Romans 15:19
- Chrysostom's Homilies on 2 Timothy, verse 4:20
- The Muratorian Fragment lines 38â39 Bible Research
- Acts 9:26â27
- Galatians 1:17â18
- Acts 11:30, 12:25
- Acts 15
- Galatians 2:1
- Acts 15:1â19
- Acts 15:36â40
- Acts 18:21â22
- Acts 21:17ff
- Acts 24:17
- Acts 21:21
- Acts 21:22â26
- Acts 21:27â36
- Acts 22:22
- Acts 22:30
- Acts 23:10
- Acts 23:12
- Acts 23:23
- Acts 24:1
- Acts 24:22
- Acts 24:23
- Acts 27:39â44
- Acts 28:2â5
- Acts 28:1â10
- Acts 28:11â14
- Acts 28:30â31
- Foxe, J., The Acts and Monuments of the Church: Containing the History and Sufferings of The Martyrs, p16
- MaGee Greg. "The Origins of the Church at Rome" Bible.org; Accessed 18 March 2013
- Eusebius, Church History, Book 2, Chapter 22, Paragraph 3
- 2 Timothy 4:13
- 1 Corinthians 11:17â34
- Romans 1
- Galatians 1:16
- 1 Corinthians 9:1
- 2 Corinthians 12:7
- Philippians 3:6
- 1 Thessalonians 2:14â16
- Acts 9:1â2
- 1 Timothy 1:13
- Romans 1:3
- 1 Thessalonians 4:14â18
- 1 Thessalonians 5:23
- 1 Corinthians 1:2
- 2 Corinthians 12:8â9
- 1 Thessalonians 3:11
- 1 Corinthians 16:22
- Romans 10:9â13
- Philippians 2:10â11
- 1 Corinthians 6:11
- Romans 6:3
- 1 Corinthians 11:17â34
- 1 Thessalonians 4:15â17
- Ephesians 2:8â9
- Galatians 4:4â7
- Gal 2.14
- Galatians 3:28
- Philippians 3:3â5
- Galatians 6:15
- Romans 6:4
- Jewish Encyclopedia, SIN
- Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), ATONEMENT
- Galatians 6:16
- Philippians 3:3
- Galatians 3â4
- Romans 2:16â26
- Romans 9â11
- Zechariah 8:20â23
- Romans 11:25
- Jordan Cooper, E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul
- Romans 2:13ff
- N.T. Wright (2018), Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay, page 58, University of St. Andrews
- 1 Corinthians 15:51â53
- 1 Thessalonians 4:16ff
- 2 Thessalonians 2:3
- 1 Timothy 2:9â15
- Romans 16:7
- 1 Corinthians 14
- 1 Corinthians 11
- Exodus 15:20
- Judges 4:4
- Isaiah 8:3
- Nehemiah 6:14
- Galatians 3:28
- Ephesians 5:22â6:5
- Colossians 3:18â4:1
- Titus 2:1â10
- 1 Peter 3:1â9
- 1 Corinthians 14:34â36
- Romans 16:3â4
- 1 Corinthians 1:11
- Romans 16:1â2
- Romans 16
- M. Mikhail. "The Coptic Orthodox Church's View on Homosexuality."
- Romans 1:26â27
- 1 Corinthians 6:9â10
- 1 Timothy 1:8â11
- Romans 10:4
- Romans 9
- al-Shahrastani & KaylÄnÄ«, p. 264.
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