What is Peking Man and where were its fossils discovered?

Peking Man, scientifically classified as *Homo erectus pekinensis*, is a subspecies of *Homo erectus* that inhabited what is now northern China during the Middle Pleistocene epoch. Its fossils have been found in the Zhoukoudian cave system, located approximately 50 kilometers (31 miles) southwest of Beijing, China.

When was the first fossil of Peking Man discovered, and what type of fossil was it?

The first fossil of Peking Man, identified as a human tooth, was discovered in 1921 at the Zhoukoudian site. This initial find marked the beginning of extensive research into this ancient hominin.

Who were some of the key early scientists involved in the study and excavation of Peking Man?

Several prominent scientists were crucial in the early study of Peking Man, including Johan Gunnar Andersson (Swedish geologist), Walter W. Granger (American paleontologist), Otto Zdansky (Austrian paleontologist), Davidson Black (Canadian paleoanthropologist), and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (French paleoanthropologist).

What was the original scientific classification of Peking Man, and who proposed it?

In 1927, Davidson Black classified the Peking Man fossils as a new genus and species, *Sinanthropus pekinensis*, based on the initial tooth discoveries. This classification was later revised as more evidence emerged.

What significant historical event led to the loss of the original Peking Man fossil specimens?

The original Peking Man fossils were lost during the Second Sino-Japanese War. They were being transported for safekeeping by the United States Marine Corps in December 1941 when the ship carrying them was attacked, and their fate remains unknown.

What is the significance of the Zhoukoudian site in the context of *Homo erectus* research?

The Zhoukoudian site is highly significant because it has yielded the largest collection of *Homo erectus* fossils globally, making it the most productive site for studying this species.

How did the discovery of Peking Man influence Chinese anthropology and national identity?

Peking Man was foundational to Chinese anthropology, fostering scientific dialogue between East and West and supporting the 'Out of Asia' theory of human origins. Post-revolution, it was used to integrate Marxism and science into public understanding and to shape Chinese national identity by emphasizing the deep antiquity of humans in China.

Describe the characteristic anatomical features of the Peking Man skull.

The Peking Man skull is characterized by its low, elongated shape, thick cranial bones, and a prominent brow ridge (supraorbital torus). It also features a sagittal keel along the midline and a robust jaw without a chin, with wide eye sockets.

What was the estimated brain volume for Peking Man, and how does it compare to modern humans?

The brain capacity of Peking Man fossils ranged from 850 to 1,225 cubic centimeters (cc), averaging around 1,029 cc. This range falls within the variation observed in modern human brain sizes.

What are some of the distinctive dental characteristics noted in Peking Man?

Peking Man possessed large teeth, with incisors that are notably shovel-shaped, meaning the inner surface has a pronounced ridge. Additionally, their premolars sometimes had three roots, and molar crowns occasionally displayed extra ridges.

What is the estimated time frame for Peking Man's occupation of the Zhoukoudian cave site?

Peking Man is estimated to have inhabited the Zhoukoudian cave site intermittently over a long period, potentially from as early as 800,000 years ago to as recently as 230,000 years ago, although the exact chronology is still debated among researchers.

What type of environment did Peking Man inhabit?

Peking Man lived in a cool environment characterized by steppe and some forested areas. This habitat supported a diverse fauna, including large mammals like deer, rhinos, elephants, and various predators.

What kinds of stone tools were recovered from the Zhoukoudian site?

The Zhoukoudian site yielded over 100,000 stone tool pieces, predominantly debitage (waste material from tool production). Simpler tools like choppers and flakes were common, alongside some retouched tools such as scrapers and potentially burins.

What is the 'Movius Line' and how does it relate to the tools found with Peking Man?

The Movius Line, proposed by Hallam L. Movius, is a conceptual division suggesting a difference in tool technology between East Asia and the West during the Lower Paleolithic. It noted that East Asian sites like Zhoukoudian primarily yielded chopping tools, contrasting with the hand-axe industries found in Western regions.

What evidence exists to suggest that Peking Man may have controlled fire?

Early excavations at Zhoukoudian reported the presence of burned bones, stones, ash, and charcoal, which were initially interpreted as evidence of controlled fire use, possibly in hearths. However, later research has debated these findings, suggesting natural fires or other geological processes might explain the burned materials.

What was the 'Out of Asia' theory regarding human evolution, and how did Peking Man fit into it?

The 'Out of Asia' theory proposed that human evolution originated in Asia. Peking Man, with its significant anatomical features, was used by proponents of this theory to argue for an Asian origin of humankind, contrasting with the later widely accepted 'Out of Africa' theory.

How did the discovery of Peking Man influence the debate between the 'Out of Asia' and 'Out of Africa' theories?

Peking Man's discovery initially bolstered the 'Out of Asia' theory by suggesting Asia as a key region for human evolution. However, as older *Homo erectus* fossils were found in Africa and the 'Out of Africa' theory gained prominence, Peking Man's role shifted from a primary ancestor to a significant regional population within the broader *H. erectus* lineage.

What is the significance of shovel-shaped incisors found in Peking Man?

Shovel-shaped incisors, a trait where the inner surface of the incisor teeth is more pronounced, are a notable dental characteristic of Peking Man. This trait is also found in many modern East Asian populations.

What debate exists regarding the deposition of Peking Man fossils in the Zhoukoudian cave?

There is a debate concerning whether Peking Man lived in the Zhoukoudian caves or if their remains were deposited primarily by carnivores like hyenas. While evidence of human activity exists, many fossils show gnaw marks and breakage patterns consistent with hyena predation.

What is the estimated average height of Peking Man compared to tropical *Homo erectus* populations?

Northerly populations of *Homo erectus*, including Peking Man, are estimated to have averaged around 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) in height. In contrast, more tropical populations of *H. erectus* are estimated to have averaged about 160 cm (5 ft 3 in).

What was the original scientific name proposed for Peking Man, and why was it later revised?

Davidson Black originally classified Peking Man as *Sinanthropus pekinensis* in 1927. This classification was later revised, and the fossils are now generally considered a subspecies of *Homo erectus*, designated as *Homo erectus pekinensis*.

What was Franz Weidenreich's significant contribution to the study of Peking Man's anatomy?

Franz Weidenreich made extensive anatomical studies and reconstructions of Peking Man, including attempts to create a complete skull model and lifelike busts. He also proposed that Peking Man and Java Man were closely related, differing mainly at the racial variation level.

How was the discovery of Peking Man utilized by the Chinese government during the Mao era?

During the Mao era, Peking Man was prominently featured in educational materials and public discourse. It was used to link Chinese Communist ideology with human evolution, promote Marxism, and establish a narrative of deep human history in China, thereby reinforcing national identity.

What is the 'muddle in the middle' concerning the classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins in China?

The 'muddle in the middle' refers to the ongoing difficulty and debate in classifying Middle Pleistocene hominin fossils found in China. Some researchers propose new species like *Homo longi* based on anatomical differences, while others consider these variations within the broader *Homo erectus* species or related lineages.

What is the significance of *Homo erectus* fossils found in Africa, such as Olduvai Hominin 9, in relation to Peking Man?

African *Homo erectus* fossils, like Olduvai Hominin 9, have contributed to the 'Out of Africa' model, suggesting *H. erectus* originated in Africa and then dispersed. This perspective has led to a re-evaluation of Peking Man's role, with *H. erectus* now largely considered to have evolved in Africa before spreading globally.

What does the term 'classic *H. erectus*' refer to in the context of Peking Man?

The term 'classic *H. erectus*' is often used to describe Peking Man and similar East Asian *Homo erectus* fossils because their anatomical features are considered representative of the species as a whole.

What is the significance of *Homo erectus* fossils found in China, such as Lantian Man and Nanjing Man, in relation to Peking Man?

Fossils like Lantian Man and Nanjing Man are important *Homo erectus* finds in China. Anatomically, northern Chinese specimens, including Peking Man and Nanjing Man, share certain cranial characteristics, although direct comparisons are often complicated by the fragmentary nature of the remains.

What is the debate surrounding the classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins in China, such as *Homo longi*?

The classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins from China, including fossils proposed as *Homo longi*, is a subject of ongoing debate. Some researchers suggest distinct species based on anatomical variations, while others view these differences as part of the broader *Homo erectus* species or a related lineage.

What is the significance of the 'Movius Line' in understanding prehistoric tool cultures?

The Movius Line, proposed by Hallam L. Movius, demarcated a perceived technological divide between East Asia and the West during the Lower Paleolithic. It suggested that East Asian cultures, like those at Zhoukoudian, primarily used simple chopping tools, while Western cultures developed more complex hand-axe industries.

What evidence suggests that Peking Man might have been scavengers rather than primary hunters?

Some researchers, such as Lewis Binford, have suggested that Peking Man might have been scavengers. This theory is based on observations where cut marks on animal bones often overlap with hyena gnaw marks, implying hyenas were the primary predators and Peking Man scavenged from their kills.

What were the predominant types of stone tools found at the Zhoukoudian site?

The stone tools recovered from Zhoukoudian primarily consist of debitage (waste material from tool production), along with simple choppers and flakes. More refined tools like scrapers and possibly burins were also found, although their intentional creation is debated by some researchers.

What is the 'Out of Africa' theory regarding human evolution?

The 'Out of Africa' theory proposes that anatomically modern humans originated in Africa and subsequently migrated across the globe, replacing earlier hominin populations. This theory is currently the dominant scientific explanation for the origin of modern humans.

How does the thickness of Peking Man's bones compare to those of modern humans?

Peking Man's cranial and long bones are notably thicker than those found in modern humans. This robusticity is a characteristic feature of the *Homo erectus* fossils discovered at Zhoukoudian.

What is the significance of *Homo erectus* fossils found in Africa, such as Olduvai Hominin 9, in relation to Peking Man?

Discoveries like Olduvai Hominin 9 in Africa have strengthened the 'Out of Africa' model, suggesting *Homo erectus* originated in Africa and then dispersed. This perspective has led to a re-evaluation of Peking Man's role, with *H. erectus* now largely considered to have evolved in Africa before spreading globally.

What does the term 'classic *H. erectus*' refer to in the context of Peking Man?

The term 'classic *H. erectus*' is often used to describe Peking Man and similar East Asian *Homo erectus* fossils because their anatomical features are considered representative of the species as a whole.

What is the significance of *Homo erectus* fossils found in China, such as Lantian Man and Nanjing Man, in relation to Peking Man?

Fossils like Lantian Man and Nanjing Man are also important *Homo erectus* finds in China. Anatomically, northern Chinese specimens, including Peking Man and Nanjing Man, share certain cranial characteristics, although direct comparisons are often complicated by the fragmentary nature of the remains.

What is the debate surrounding the classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins in China, such as *Homo longi*?

The classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins from China, including fossils proposed as *Homo longi*, is a subject of ongoing debate. Some researchers suggest distinct species based on anatomical variations, while others consider these differences as part of the broader *Homo erectus* species or a related lineage.

What is the significance of the 'Movius Line' in understanding prehistoric tool cultures?

The Movius Line, proposed by Hallam L. Movius, demarcated a perceived technological divide between East Asia and the West during the Lower Paleolithic. It suggested that East Asian cultures, like those at Zhoukoudian, primarily used simple chopping tools, contrasting with the more complex hand-axe industries found in Western regions.

What evidence suggests that Peking Man might have been scavengers rather than primary hunters?

Some researchers, such as Lewis Binford, have suggested that Peking Man might have been scavengers. This theory is supported by observations where cut marks on animal bones often overlap with hyena gnaw marks, implying hyenas were the primary predators and Peking Man scavenged from their kills.

What were the predominant types of stone tools found at the Zhoukoudian site?

The stone tools recovered from Zhoukoudian primarily consist of debitage (waste material from tool production), along with simple choppers and flakes. More refined tools like scrapers and possibly burins were also found, although their intentional creation is debated by some researchers.

What is the 'Out of Africa' theory regarding human evolution?

The 'Out of Africa' theory proposes that anatomically modern humans originated in Africa and subsequently migrated across the globe, replacing earlier hominin populations. This theory is currently the dominant scientific explanation for the origin of modern humans.

How does the thickness of Peking Man's bones compare to those of modern humans?

Peking Man's cranial and long bones are notably thicker than those found in modern humans. This robusticity is a characteristic feature of the *Homo erectus* fossils discovered at Zhoukoudian.

What is the significance of *Homo erectus* fossils found in Africa, such as Olduvai Hominin 9, in relation to Peking Man?

Discoveries like Olduvai Hominin 9 in Africa have strengthened the 'Out of Africa' model, suggesting *Homo erectus* originated in Africa and then dispersed. This perspective has led to a re-evaluation of Peking Man's role, with *H. erectus* now largely considered to have evolved in Africa before spreading globally.

What does the term 'classic *H. erectus*' refer to in the context of Peking Man?

The term 'classic *H. erectus*' is often used to describe Peking Man and similar East Asian *Homo erectus* fossils because their anatomical features are considered representative of the species as a whole.

What is the significance of *Homo erectus* fossils found in China, such as Lantian Man and Nanjing Man, in relation to Peking Man?

Fossils like Lantian Man and Nanjing Man are also important *Homo erectus* finds in China. Anatomically, northern Chinese specimens, including Peking Man and Nanjing Man, share certain cranial characteristics, although direct comparisons are often complicated by the fragmentary nature of the remains.

What is the debate surrounding the classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins in China, such as *Homo longi*?

The classification of Middle Pleistocene hominins from China, including fossils proposed as *Homo longi*, is a subject of ongoing debate. Some researchers suggest distinct species based on anatomical variations, while others consider these differences as part of the broader *Homo erectus* species or a related lineage.

What is the significance of the 'Movius Line' in understanding prehistoric tool cultures?

The Movius Line, proposed by Hallam L. Movius, demarcated a perceived technological divide between East Asia and the West during the Lower Paleolithic. It suggested that East Asian cultures, like those at Zhoukoudian, primarily used simple chopping tools, contrasting with the more complex hand-axe industries found in Western regions.

What evidence suggests that Peking Man might have been scavengers rather than primary hunters?

Some researchers, such as Lewis Binford, have suggested that Peking Man might have been scavengers. This theory is supported by observations where cut marks on animal bones often overlap with hyena gnaw marks, implying hyenas were the primary predators and Peking Man scavenged from their kills.

What were the predominant types of stone tools found at the Zhoukoudian site?

The stone tools recovered from Zhoukoudian primarily consist of debitage (waste material from tool production), along with simple choppers and flakes. More refined tools like scrapers and possibly burins were also found, although their intentional creation is debated by some researchers.

What is the 'Out of Africa' theory regarding human evolution?

The 'Out of Africa' theory proposes that anatomically modern humans originated in Africa and subsequently migrated across the globe, replacing earlier hominin populations. This theory is currently the dominant scientific explanation for the origin of modern humans.

How does the thickness of Peking Man's bones compare to those of modern humans?

Peking Man's cranial and long bones are notably thicker than those found in modern humans. This robusticity is a characteristic feature of the *Homo erectus* fossils discovered at Zhoukoudian.

Peking Man Wiki: Peking Man: Unearthing Early Human Ancestry

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Introduction

A Foundational Fossil

Peking Man, scientifically classified as Homo erectus pekinensis, represents a significant subspecies of Homo erectus that inhabited northern China during the Middle Pleistocene epoch. The discovery of its fossils at the Zhoukoudian cave site, southwest of Beijing, has been pivotal in the field of paleoanthropology, profoundly influencing our understanding of human origins and evolution.

Historical Significance

Beyond its scientific importance, Peking Man played a crucial role in shaping Chinese anthropology and fostering dialogue between Eastern and Western scientific communities. Its interpretation and presentation were also intertwined with the socio-political landscape of China, particularly following the Communist Revolution, influencing national identity and scientific discourse.

Defining Characteristics

Peking Man exhibits classic Homo erectus anatomy, characterized by a long, heavily built skull with prominent brow ridges, a sagittal keel, and thickened cranial and long bones. The face is prognathic, with robust jaws and shovel-shaped incisors. Brain volume estimates place it within the range of modern humans, despite its archaic features.

The Discovery Narrative

Early Exploration

The search for fossils in China began in earnest with Swedish geologist Johan Gunnar Andersson in 1914. His exploration of Zhoukoudian, initially for economically valuable deposits, led him to discover fossiliferous sites, including the famed "Dragon Bone Hill" locality. The presence of numerous rodent fossils, believed by locals to be from mythical creatures, hinted at the site's potential.

The First Tooth

In 1921, Otto Zdansky, a palaeontologist working with Andersson, unearthed the first human tooth at Zhoukoudian. This discovery, though initially understated, marked the beginning of extensive research. Subsequent years saw the involvement of prominent figures like Davidson Black, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and Walter W. Granger, establishing the Cenozoic Research Laboratory to facilitate systematic study.

Naming and Recognition

In 1927, Davidson Black formally classified the finds as a new genus and species, Sinanthropus pekinensis, based on limited evidence. This classification, later revised to Homo erectus pekinensis, cemented Peking Man's place in the human evolutionary lineage. The site became the most productive Homo erectus location globally, yielding remains of numerous individuals.

Taxonomic Placement

Evolutionary Context

Peking Man is taxonomically placed as a subspecies of Homo erectus. This classification reflects its anatomical similarities to other H. erectus populations found across Africa and Asia, while acknowledging regional and temporal variations. The debate surrounding its exact phylogenetic position and relationship to other hominins, including potential interbreeding with modern human ancestors, continues.

Naming Conventions

Initially named Sinanthropus pekinensis by Davidson Black in 1927, the classification evolved over time. Franz Weidenreich's comparative studies with Java Man (Pithecanthropus erectus) suggested a closer relationship, leading to proposals for subsuming both under Homo erectus. Ernst Mayr's influential 1950 classification solidified the placement of Peking Man as H. erectus pekinensis, a view widely adopted.

Sino-Centric Debates

The interpretation of Peking Man's role in human evolution has been influenced by nationalistic sentiments. Early theories championed an "Out of Asia" model, positioning Peking Man as a direct ancestor to modern Chinese populations. While the "Out of Africa" theory is now the prevailing consensus, discussions about regional continuity and assimilation models persist among some researchers.

Chronological Framework

Dating the Fossils

The Zhoukoudian site's fossil-bearing layers are divided into multiple strata, with Peking Man remains primarily found in Layers 10 through 3. Initial estimates placed the occupation period from around 800,000 to 230,000 years ago. More refined dating suggests Layer 10 might date between 600,000 and 800,000 years ago, while Layer 3 could be from 400,000 to 500,000 years ago, reflecting fluctuating glacial and interglacial periods.

Environmental Context

The paleoenvironment inferred from faunal remains at Zhoukoudian indicates shifts between cold, dry grassland conditions (Layers 10-5) and warmer, forested environments (Layers 9-4). These climatic fluctuations likely influenced the migratory patterns and survival strategies of Peking Man and the associated fauna.

Debates on Fire Use

Evidence for fire usage at Zhoukoudian has been a subject of debate. While some researchers interpret ash deposits and burnt bone fragments as indicators of controlled fire, others suggest natural wildfires or hyena activity. The presence of fire would significantly impact our understanding of Peking Man's technological capabilities and ability to survive colder periods.

Anatomical Profile

Cranial Features

Peking Man skulls are characterized by a low, ellipsoid cranial vault, significant post-orbital constriction, and a pronounced supraorbital torus (brow ridge). A sagittal keel runs along the midline, and the occipital torus is well-developed. The face exhibits midfacial prognathism, wide eye sockets, and robust, chinless jaws. Brain capacity ranges from 850 to 1,225 cc, falling within the modern human spectrum.

Brain Morphology

Endocasts reveal a brain shape with narrowed frontal lobes due to post-orbital constriction, and depressed parietal lobes. The temporal lobes are slender, and the occipital lobes project backward. While the overall brain volume is comparable to modern humans, the specific proportions and internal structures suggest differences from H. sapiens.

Dental and Mandibular Traits

The dentition includes large, robust jaws with shovel-shaped incisors, a trait also observed in modern East Asian populations. The palate is long and rugose. Mandibles lack a chin, and the teeth exhibit features like prominent canine juga and molar exostoses. The dental arches are U-shaped.

Postcranial Skeleton

The postcranial remains, though fragmentary, suggest a body plan similar to modern humans. Long bones are notably stout, with thickened cortical bone and reduced medullary cavities. Features like developed muscle attachments on the humerus and specific femoral characteristics (e.g., stoutness, flatness, reduced femoral neck angle) are noted, though often within the broader variation seen in Homo erectus.

Culture and Environment

Paleoenvironment

The Zhoukoudian cave system provided shelter for Peking Man amidst diverse fauna, including megafauna like elephants, rhinos, and large predators such as hyenas and saber-toothed cats. The environment varied from grasslands to forested areas, reflecting the climatic shifts of the Middle Pleistocene.

Tool Use and Subsistence

Over 100,000 stone tools, primarily simple choppers and flakes, have been recovered. Debates persist regarding the extent of Peking Man's hunting prowess versus scavenging. Evidence of cut marks on animal bones suggests tool use for processing carcasses, but the role of hyenas in accumulating the hominin remains is also strongly supported by taphonomic analysis.

Social Interpretations

Early interpretations, such as Henri Breuil's hypothesis of cannibalism or headhunting, were based on the abundance of skulls and specific bone modifications. However, later analyses increasingly attribute these modifications to carnivore activity, particularly by the giant hyena Pachycrocuta. The social structure and behaviors of Peking Man remain subjects of ongoing research and interpretation.

Historical and Political Context

Loss of Specimens

A significant chapter in the Peking Man story is the mysterious loss of the original fossils during World War II. Transported for safekeeping from the Peking Union Medical College, the specimens vanished en route to the United States. Despite extensive searches and speculation, their fate remains unknown, highlighting the turbulent historical period.

National Identity and Ideology

Following the 1949 revolution, Peking Man became a symbol of China's ancient heritage and a tool for disseminating Marxist ideology. Educational materials emphasized Peking Man as a direct ancestor, promoting a Sinocentric view of human evolution and national pride. This narrative contrasted with the growing "Out of Africa" consensus in the West.

Shifting Paradigms

The rise of Afrocentric models of human evolution, supported by discoveries in Africa and advances in genetics, challenged the dominance of Asian origin theories. While the "Out of Africa" model is widely accepted, the concept of regional continuity and interbreeding between archaic hominins and modern humans, potentially involving populations like Peking Man, continues to be explored.

Phylogenetic Relationships

Placement in Homo

Peking Man is situated within the genus Homo, specifically as a subspecies of Homo erectus. This places it chronologically after earlier hominins like Homo habilis and contemporary with or ancestral to later hominins such as Homo heidelbergensis, Neanderthals, and Homo sapiens.

Asian vs. African Origins

While early theories favored an Asian origin for humanity, with Peking Man playing a central role, current consensus suggests Homo erectus evolved in Africa and subsequently dispersed. Fossil evidence from Africa, such as Turkana Boy and Olduvai Hominin 9, provides key data for understanding the broader H. erectus lineage.

Connections and Divergences

Peking Man shares similarities with other Asian H. erectus populations, like Nanjing Man and Yuanmou Man, though subtle anatomical differences exist. Its relationship to later hominins and the possibility of interbreeding with groups like Denisovans are areas of active research, informed by paleogenetic studies.

Key Specimens

Catalog of Finds

The Zhoukoudian site has yielded a remarkable collection of hominin fossils, attributed to approximately 40 individuals. These include numerous skull fragments, mandibles, teeth, and postcranial elements. The table below summarizes key finds, their associated layers, and estimated ages.

Locus + Individual	Layer	Elements	Sex	Excavation	Age
A1	5	₂I, I₁, P₃, P₄, M₁, ¹M	F	1921–1927, 1952	Juvenile
A2	5	Adult Mandible I, ²M	F	1927–1928	Adult
A3	5	₁M, ₃M	M	1928	Adult
B1	4	Juvenile Mandible I (with teeth)	F	1928, 1935	Juvenile
B2	4	Skull I, Adult Mandible II, Humerus I, Lunate	M	1928, 1935	Adult
B3	4	Juvenile Mandible II	M	1928, 1935	Juvenile
B4	4	Juvenile Mandible III with ₂M	F	1928, 1935	Juvenile
B5	4	Juvenile Mandible IV	M	1928, 1935	Juvenile
C1	8/9	Juvenile Mandible V with C₁, P₃, ₄P, ₂M	F	1929	Juvenile
C2	8/9	C₁, M₁	M	1929	Adult
C3	8/9	M₁, ₂I, ₁M, Femur 1	M	1929, 1938?	Juvenile
C4	8/9	C	F	1929	Adult
D1	10	Skull II with 6 teeth	F	1929	Adult
D2	10	I¹, M¹, M², ¹I, ₂M	M	1929	Adult
E1	10	Skull III	M	1929	Juvenile
F1	10	Juvenile Mandible VI	M	1930	Juvenile
F2	10	I², P⁴, M³, ₂M	F	1930	Juvenile
F3	10	P³, ⁴P, ³M	F	1930	Adult
F4	10	I¹, ²I, ¹C, ³P	M	1930	Juvenile
G1	7	Adult Mandible III	M	1931	Adult
G2	7	Skull IV, Clavicle	M	1931	Juvenile
H1	3	Adult Mandible IV with ₃P	F	1934	Elderly
H2	3	₃P	F	1934	Adult
H3	3	Skull V with ³M	M	1934–1936, 1966	Elderly
H4	3	Adult Mandible V	F	1934–1935	Elderly
I1	8/9	Skull VI with 4 teeth, atlas	F	1936	Adult
I2	8/9	Skull VII	M	1936	Juvenile
J1	8/9	Skull VIII	F	1936	Juvenile
J2	8/9	Femur II	F	1936–1938	Adult
J3	8/9	Femur III, Humerus II	M	1936–1938	Adult
J4	8/9	Skull IX	M	1936	Juvenile
K1	8/9	Adult Mandible VI	M	1936	Adult
K2	8/9	₂I	F	1936	Juvenile
L1	8/9	Skull X with 8 teeth	M	1936	Adult
L2	8/9	Skull XI with 13 teeth	M	1936	Adult
L3	8/9	Skull XII	M	1936	Adult
L4	8/9	1 upper and 3 lower teeth	M	1936	Juvenile
M1	8/9	Adult Mandible VII, Femur 6	M	1937–1938	Adult
M2	8/9	Adult Mandible VIII	F	1937	Adult
M3	8/9	Femur VII	F	1937–1938	Adult
M4	8/9	Femora IV and V	M	1937–1938	Adult
N1	8/9	P₄, M¹	F	1937	Juvenile
O1	10	Skull XIII with 6 teeth	M?	1937	Adult
O2	10	M₁		1937	Adult
	8/9?	I¹, M₁, M₂		1949	Adult
	8/9?	₃P		1951	Adult
	8/9?	Humerus III		1937?, 1951	Adult
	8/9?	Tibia I		1937?, 1951	Adult
	8/9?	⁴P		1951	Adult
	10	Adult Mandible IX with M₁	F	1959	Adult
	3	₃P		1966	Adult

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References

I1 denotes the lower left first incisor, 1I the upper right first incisor, C the canine, P the premolar, and M the molar.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Peking Man Wikipedia page

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Peking Man

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction ℹ️

🌍 A Foundational Fossil

🏛️ Historical Significance

🗿 Defining Characteristics

The Discovery Narrative 🔍

🗺️ Early Exploration

🦷 The First Tooth

📜 Naming and Recognition

Taxonomic Placement 🏷️

🌳 Evolutionary Context

🗣️ Naming Conventions

🇨🇳 Sino-Centric Debates

Chronological Framework ⏳

⏳ Dating the Fossils

🌍 Environmental Context

🔥 Debates on Fire Use

Anatomical Profile 🦴

💀 Cranial Features

🧠 Brain Morphology

👄 Dental and Mandibular Traits

💪 Postcranial Skeleton

Culture and Environment 🏺

🌿 Paleoenvironment

🛠️ Tool Use and Subsistence

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Social Interpretations

Historical and Political Context 🏛️

⚔️ Loss of Specimens

🚩 National Identity and Ideology

🔄 Shifting Paradigms

Phylogenetic Relationships 🌳

🌳 Placement in Homo

↔️ Asian vs. African Origins

🔗 Connections and Divergences

Key Specimens 📜

🗄️ Catalog of Finds

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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Gamer's Corner 🎮

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction

A Foundational Fossil

Historical Significance

Defining Characteristics

The Discovery Narrative

Early Exploration

The First Tooth

Naming and Recognition

Taxonomic Placement

Evolutionary Context

Naming Conventions

Sino-Centric Debates

Chronological Framework

Dating the Fossils

Environmental Context

Debates on Fire Use

Anatomical Profile

Cranial Features

Brain Morphology

Dental and Mandibular Traits

Postcranial Skeleton

Culture and Environment

Paleoenvironment

Tool Use and Subsistence

Social Interpretations

Historical and Political Context

Loss of Specimens

National Identity and Ideology

Shifting Paradigms

Phylogenetic Relationships

Placement in Homo

Asian vs. African Origins

Connections and Divergences

Key Specimens

Catalog of Finds

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice