Who was Pericles, and what was his significance in Ancient Athens?

Pericles was a Greek statesman and general who lived from approximately 495 to 429 BC. He was a prominent and influential figure in Ancient Athenian politics, particularly during the period between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War. He is often acclaimed as 'the first citizen of Athens' by contemporary historian Thucydides, and the era of his leadership is sometimes referred to as the 'Age of Pericles'.

What were Pericles's major accomplishments during his leadership in Athens?

Pericles transformed the Delian League into an Athenian empire and led his countrymen during the initial two years of the Peloponnesian War. He was also a strong proponent of the arts and literature, which significantly contributed to Athens's reputation as the educational and cultural hub of the ancient Greek world. Furthermore, he initiated an ambitious building program that resulted in most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, which served to beautify and protect the city, showcase its glory, and provide employment for its citizens. He also greatly fostered Athenian democracy, though some critics labeled him a populist for these efforts.

What notable dream did Pericles's mother, Agariste, have before his birth, and how was it interpreted?

According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed she had borne a lion a few nights before Pericles's birth. This dream was traditionally interpreted as a symbol of greatness, foreshadowing his future prominence. However, it may also have alluded to the unusually large size of Pericles's skull, which was a subject of jest among contemporary comedians who called him 'Squill-head'.

Why was Pericles often depicted wearing a helmet, according to historical accounts?

While Plutarch suggested that Pericles was always depicted wearing a helmet to conceal an unusually large skull, this is not accurate. The helmet was actually a symbol of his official rank as *strategos*, or general, indicating his military leadership position.

How did Pericles's family wealth influence his early education and intellectual development?

His family's nobility and wealth enabled Pericles to fully pursue his intellectual interests. He received musical instruction from renowned masters like Damon or Pythocleides and is credited as the first politician to emphasize the importance of philosophy. He cultivated friendships with philosophers such as Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and particularly Anaxagoras, who profoundly influenced his emotional calm and skeptical approach to divine phenomena.

What was Pericles's first significant public act, and what did it demonstrate?

In the spring of 472 BC, Pericles presented *The Persians* by Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy. This act served as a public demonstration of his considerable wealth, indicating his status as one of Athens's wealthier citizens.

How did Pericles initially position himself politically in his early career?

Simon Hornblower suggests that by presenting Aeschylus's *The Persians*, a play celebrating Themistocles's victory at Salamis, the young Pericles was signaling his support for Themistocles against his political rival, Cimon. This indicates an early alignment with a particular political faction.

What was Pericles's approach to public life and personal conduct in his early years of leadership?

Plutarch notes that Pericles, upon assuming a leadership role in the early 460s BC, consciously protected his privacy and aimed to be a role model for his fellow citizens. He often avoided banquets and practiced frugality, presenting an image of disciplined public service.

What was the outcome of Pericles's prosecution of Cimon in 463 BC?

In 463 BC, Pericles acted as the chief prosecutor against Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction, accusing him of neglecting Athens's vital interests in Macedon. Although Cimon was ultimately acquitted, this confrontation revealed that Pericles's primary political opponent was vulnerable, marking a significant step in Pericles's rise to power.

What significant reform did Ephialtes propose around 461 BC, and what was its impact on Athenian governance?

Around 461 BC, Ephialtes, Pericles's mentor and leader of the democratic party, proposed a reduction of the powers of the Areopagus, a traditional council controlled by the Athenian aristocracy. The Athenian Assembly (Ecclesia) adopted this proposal without opposition, marking the beginning of a new era of 'radical democracy' in Athens.

Why did Pericles adopt a populist policy in Athenian politics, according to Aristotle?

According to Aristotle, Pericles's adoption of a populist policy was a strategic response to his main political rival, Cimon, who was wealthy and generous, and used his personal fortune to gain public favor. By implementing populist measures, Pericles aimed to counter Cimon's influence and secure public support.

How did Pericles eliminate Cimon as a political opponent in 461 BC?

In 461 BC, Pericles politically eliminated Cimon through the process of ostracism. Cimon was accused of betraying Athens by aiding Sparta, leading to his exile from the city.

What were some of the populist social policies Pericles introduced after Cimon's ostracism?

After Cimon's ostracism, Pericles continued to advance populist social policies. He proposed a decree allowing the poor to attend theatrical plays without charge, with the state covering the admission cost. He also lowered the property requirement for the archonship between 458 and 457 BC and provided generous wages to citizens serving as jurymen in the Heliaia, Athens's supreme court, shortly after 454 BC.

What was Pericles's most controversial measure regarding Athenian citizenship?

Pericles's most controversial measure was a law enacted in 451 BC that restricted Athenian citizenship exclusively to individuals whose parents were both of Athenian descent. This significantly narrowed the criteria for citizenship.

What was Pericles's belief about the *demos* (common people) in relation to Athenian power?

According to historian Loren J. Samons II, Pericles believed it was essential to elevate the *demos*, viewing them as an untapped source of Athenian power and a critical component of the city's military dominance. This was particularly relevant as the Athenian fleet, a cornerstone of its power, was largely manned by members of the lower classes.

How did Ephialtes's murder impact Pericles's political authority?

Ephialtes's murder in 461 BC removed Pericles's mentor and the leader of the democratic party, effectively clearing the way for Pericles to consolidate his authority. With Cimon already ostracized, Pericles became the unchallenged ruler of Athens, a position he maintained until his death in 429 BC.

What were the initial military actions Pericles undertook during the First Peloponnesian War?

Pericles's first military engagements during the First Peloponnesian War, which was partly triggered by Athens's alliances with Megara and Argos and Sparta's reaction, included attacking Sicyon and Acarnania in 454 BC. He then made an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Oeniadea on the Corinthian Gulf before returning to Athens.

What significant truce was negotiated with Sparta in 451 BC, and who was involved?

In 451 BC, Cimon, who had returned from exile, negotiated a five-year truce with Sparta. This negotiation occurred after a proposal by Pericles, suggesting a shift in Pericles's political strategy, possibly recognizing Cimon's value in conflicts against the Peloponnesians and Persians.

What was the alleged power-sharing agreement between Pericles and Cimon, according to Plutarch?

Plutarch states that Cimon and Pericles struck a power-sharing deal: Pericles would manage internal Athenian affairs, while Cimon would lead the Athenian army in campaigns abroad. This arrangement, if true, would imply a concession from Pericles regarding his own strategic capabilities.

What major military disaster did Athens experience in the mid-450s BC?

In the mid-450s BC, Athens launched an unsuccessful expedition to support an Egyptian revolt against Persia. This campaign culminated in a significant disaster, with the besieging Athenian force being defeated and destroyed after a prolonged siege of a Persian fortress in the Nile Delta.

What was the 'Peace of Callias,' and why is its existence debated?

The 'Peace of Callias' was an alleged treaty that supposedly ended hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians. Its very existence is highly disputed among historians, and its specific terms and negotiation details remain ambiguous. Some historians believe it was ratified earlier and renegotiated, while others place its first conclusion in 450-449 BC.

What was the purpose of Pericles's Congress Decree in 449 BC, and why did it fail?

In the spring of 449 BC, Pericles proposed the Congress Decree, aiming to convene a meeting of all Greek states to discuss rebuilding temples destroyed by the Persians. The Congress ultimately failed due to Sparta's opposition. Historians debate Pericles's true intentions, suggesting he either sought a confederation of Greek cities or aimed to assert Athenian pre-eminence, or, according to Terry Buckley, a new mandate for the Delian League and tax collection.

What military action did Pericles undertake during the Second Sacred War?

During the Second Sacred War, Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi. His objective was to reinstate Phocis in its sovereign rights over the oracle, demonstrating Athenian influence in religious and regional affairs.

What significant achievement did Pericles accomplish in the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli in 447 BC?

In 447 BC, Pericles undertook a highly regarded excursion where he successfully expelled barbarians from the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli. Following this, he established Athenian colonists in the region, expanding Athenian control and influence.

What major revolts challenged Athens in 447 BC and 446 BC?

Athens faced serious challenges from revolts in 447 BC when oligarchs in Thebes conspired against the democratic faction, leading to the Battle of Coronea and the loss of Boeotia, Phocis, and Locris. In 446 BC, a more dangerous uprising occurred with the revolt of Euboea and Megara.

How did Pericles resolve the Spartan invasion of Attica in 446 BC?

In 446 BC, when the Spartan army invaded Attica, Pericles, who was in Euboea, was forced to return. He successfully defused the imminent threat through a combination of bribery and negotiations, leading the Spartans to withdraw. An expenditure of 10 talents for a 'very serious purpose' was approved by auditors, implicitly acknowledging the bribery.

What were the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace, which officially ended the crisis in 446-445 BC?

The Thirty Years' Peace, concluded in the winter of 446-445 BC, officially ended the crisis by requiring Athens to relinquish most of its possessions and interests on the Greek mainland acquired since 460 BC. Both Athens and Sparta also agreed not to attempt to sway each other's allies, aiming to stabilize the balance of power.

How did Pericles overcome the challenge from the conservative leader Thucydides in 444 BC?

In 444 BC, the conservative leader Thucydides accused Pericles of profligacy regarding his building plan. Pericles countered by offering to personally reimburse the city for all questioned expenses, provided the dedication inscriptions bore his name. This bold stance was met with applause, leading to Thucydides's ostracism for 10 years in 442 BC, re-establishing Pericles as the unchallenged political leader.

How did Pericles accelerate the transformation of the Delian League into an Athenian empire?

While the transformation of the Delian League into an Athenian empire began before Pericles's time, he significantly accelerated it. This was achieved by encouraging allies to pay tribute instead of contributing ships and by transferring the alliance's treasury from Delos to Athens in 454-453 BC, either out of genuine security concerns or as a means to gain control over the League's finances.

What was the Coinage Decree, and what were its implications for Athenian allies?

Around 447 BC, Clearchus proposed the Coinage Decree, which imposed Athenian silver coinage, weights, and measures on all of Athens's allies. A stringent provision of this decree mandated that any surplus from minting operations be directed into a special fund, with a death penalty for anyone proposing its use otherwise. This measure further solidified Athenian economic control over its empire.

What ambitious building projects did Pericles finance using the alliance's treasury?

Pericles utilized funds from the alliance's treasury to finance his ambitious building plan, famously centered on the 'Periclean Acropolis.' This included iconic structures such as the Propylaea, the Parthenon, and the golden statue of Athena, which was sculpted by his friend, Phidias. In 449 BC, he proposed a decree to allocate 9,000 talents for this major rebuilding program of Athenian temples.

What was Angelos Vlachos's assessment of Pericles's use of the alliance's treasury for building projects?

Angelos Vlachos, a Greek Academician, characterized Pericles's use of the alliance's treasury for his building projects as one of the largest embezzlements in human history. However, he also acknowledged that this misappropriation ultimately financed some of the most marvelous artistic creations of the ancient world.

What was the cause of the Samian War, and how did Pericles respond to it?

The Samian War began in 440 BC when Samos went to war against Miletus over control of Priene. After the Milesians appealed to Athens, the Athenians ordered both sides to cease fighting and submit to arbitration in Athens. When the Samians refused, Pericles issued a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos to compel their compliance.

How did Pericles resolve the Samian revolt and the subsequent revolt in Byzantium?

Pericles, leading the Athenian forces with nine other generals, defeated the Samian forces in a naval battle and imposed an Athenian administration on the island. When the Samians revolted again, Pericles compelled their capitulation after a difficult eight-month siege, despite discontent among Athenian sailors. He then quelled a revolt in Byzantium.

What internal and external projects did Pericles focus on between 438 and 436 BC?

Between 438 and 436 BC, Pericles led Athens's fleet in Pontus, establishing friendly relations with Greek cities in the region. Internally, he focused on fortifying Athens, including the construction of the 'middle wall' around 440 BC, and establishing new cleruchies (Athenian settlements) in places like Andros, Naxos, Thurii, and Amphipolis.

What personal attacks did Pericles and his associates face before the Peloponnesian War?

Just before the Peloponnesian War, Pericles and his close associates, Phidias and Aspasia, faced a series of personal and judicial attacks. Phidias was accused of embezzling gold for the statue of Athena and impiety for carving his own likeness and Pericles's on Athena's shield. Aspasia was accused of corrupting Athenian women.

What was the outcome of the accusations against Aspasia and Phidias?

Aspasia was acquitted, reportedly due to a rare emotional outburst from Pericles during her trial. Phidias, however, died in prison according to Plutarch, though this is debated as he is also credited with the later statue of Zeus at Olympia. Another friend, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the Ecclesia for his religious beliefs.

What role did Pericles's personal trials play in the lead-up to the Peloponnesian War?

Pericles himself was accused of profligacy and maladministration of public money. Plutarch suggests that Pericles was so concerned about the impending trial that he deliberately provoked the Peloponnesian War to protect his political standing at home. This meant Athens entered the war with its leader's authority recently shaken.

What were the differing views among ancient historians regarding the causes of the Peloponnesian War?

The causes of the Peloponnesian War are highly debated. Many ancient historians, including Plutarch, attributed blame to Pericles and Athens, suggesting they incited the war with 'arrogance and a love of strife.' Thucydides, while generally an admirer of Pericles, hinted at the same, believing Sparta's fear of Athenian power and growth was the underlying reason, though he has been criticized for potential bias against Sparta.

What actions did Pericles take to prepare for the inevitable war with Sparta?

Convinced that war with Sparta was unavoidable, Pericles reinforced the Corcyraean fleet against Corinth and proposed the Megarian Decree, a trade embargo that excluded Megarian merchants from Athenian markets and ports. He also advised Athenians not to yield to Spartan demands, believing concessions would only lead to further demands, and instead asked Sparta to abandon its practice of *xenelasia* and recognize the autonomy of its allied cities.

What was the Megarian Decree, and how did it contribute to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War?

The Megarian Decree was a trade embargo proposed by Pericles that prohibited Megarian merchants from accessing the market of Athens and its imperial ports. This ban severely damaged the Megarian economy and significantly strained the already fragile peace between Athens and Sparta, which was allied with Megara, thus contributing to the escalation towards war.

What justification did the Athenians provide for the Megarian Decree?

The Athenians justified the Megarian Decree by claiming that the Megarians had cultivated sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had provided refuge to runaway slaves. The Athenians considered these actions to be impious and a legitimate reason for the trade embargo.

How did Pericles respond to Sparta's demands for concessions before the war, and what was his rationale?

When Sparta demanded concessions, including the expulsion of Pericles's family and the retraction of the Megarian Decree, Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield. He believed that Athens was militarily stronger and that making unilateral concessions would only encourage Sparta to make further demands. He instead proposed a *quid pro quo*, asking Sparta to abandon its *xenelasia* and recognize the autonomy of its allied cities.

What was Pericles's strategy when Archidamus II invaded Attica in 431 BC?

In 431 BC, when Spartan King Archidamus II invaded Attica, Pericles, anticipating this strategy, had already arranged for the entire population of the region to evacuate and move within the walls of Athens. This defensive strategy aimed to deny the Spartan army a decisive land battle and protect the Athenian populace.

How did the rural residents of Attica react to Pericles's evacuation order?

The evacuation order meant that most rural residents had to abandon their land and ancestral shrines, completely altering their way of life. While they ultimately agreed to move, many were far from pleased with Pericles's decision, expressing significant discontent as they witnessed the pillage of their farms.

What promise did Pericles make to his compatriots regarding his own property during the Spartan invasion?

Pericles promised his compatriots that if the enemy did not plunder his farms, he would offer his property to the city. This promise was made out of concern that Archidamus, who was a friend, might spare Pericles's estate, a calculated political move that could alienate Pericles from his constituents.

How did Pericles manage public sentiment and military action during the Spartan invasion of Attica?

Despite mounting public pressure and outrage over the ravaging of their farms, Pericles steadfastly refused to engage the Spartan army directly or alter his defensive strategy. He also avoided convening the Ecclesia, fearing that the populace might rashly decide to confront the Spartan army in the field. Instead, he sent a fleet to loot the Peloponnese coasts and used cavalry to guard farms near the city walls.

What decree did Pericles propose regarding Athens's naval defense in autumn 431 BC?

In the autumn of 431 BC, Pericles proposed a decree mandating that the city authorities set aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships specifically for defense against naval attacks. This decree included a stringent provision that proposing any other use for these funds or ships would incur the death penalty.

What significant oration did Pericles deliver in the winter of 431-430 BC?

In the winter of 431-430 BC, Pericles delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral Oration. This speech honored the Athenians who had died for their city during the initial stages of the Peloponnesian War.

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Pericles: An Overview

The First Citizen of Athens

Pericles (c. 495–429 BC) was a preeminent Greek statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens, a period spanning roughly from 461 to 429 BC. Acclaimed by the contemporary historian Thucydides as "the first citizen of Athens," Pericles's influence was profound, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War.^[1] He transformed the Delian League into an Athenian empire and guided his city during the initial years of the Peloponnesian War.

Cultural and Democratic Patron

A fervent patron of the arts and literature, Pericles was instrumental in establishing Athens's reputation as the intellectual and cultural heart of the ancient Greek world. His ambitious building program, most notably on the Acropolis, included iconic structures like the Parthenon, which not only beautified the city but also provided employment and showcased Athenian glory.^[2] He also significantly advanced Athenian democracy, a policy that led some critics to label him a populist.^[3]^[4]

A Life Interrupted by Plague

Pericles's life was tragically cut short by the Plague of Athens in 429 BC, a devastating epidemic that also claimed several members of his family, including his legitimate sons. His death significantly weakened the city-state during its protracted conflict with Sparta, marking a turning point in Athenian leadership and policy.^[1]

Early Life & Education

Noble Lineage

Born around 495 BC in Athens, Pericles was the son of Xanthippus, a politician who commanded the Athenian contingent at the Battle of Mycale. His mother, Agariste, hailed from the influential Alcmaeonid family, whose connections were pivotal in launching his political career. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon and niece of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes.^[7]^[9] Pericles belonged to the Attic *phyle* (clan) of Acamantis.

Intellectual Development

Despite an introverted youth, Pericles's family wealth afforded him a comprehensive education. He studied music under masters like Damon or Pythocleides and was notably the first politician to emphasize philosophy.^[10] He cultivated relationships with prominent philosophers such as Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras, with the latter becoming a close friend and profound influence.^[14]^[16] Anaxagoras's teachings are credited with shaping Pericles's emotional calm and skeptical approach to divine phenomena.^[9]

The Lion's Dream & Helmet

According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed of bearing a lion before Pericles's birth, a traditional symbol of greatness.^[11] This story may also subtly reference Pericles's unusually large skull, a feature often mocked by contemporary comedians who called him "Squill-head."^[8]^[12] While Plutarch suggested this deformity was why Pericles was always depicted wearing a helmet, the helmet was actually a symbol of his official rank as *strategos* (general).^[13]

Political Ascent & Reforms

Early Political Engagements

Pericles entered the Athenian political scene by 472 BC, demonstrating his wealth by sponsoring Aeschylus's play *The Persians* at the Greater Dionysia.^[18] This act, featuring Themistocles's victory at Salamis, suggests his early alignment against Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction.^[19] By the early 460s BC, Pericles had assumed a leadership role, maintaining a private and frugal lifestyle as a model for citizens.^[21] In 463 BC, he prosecuted Cimon for neglecting Athenian interests in Macedon, signaling Cimon's vulnerability.^[23]

Radical Democracy & Ostracism

Around 461 BC, Pericles's mentor, Ephialtes, initiated reforms to reduce the powers of the Areopagus, a traditional aristocratic council, ushering in an era of "radical democracy."^[5] Pericles continued this populist trajectory, proposing decrees to allow the poor free access to theatrical plays and providing generous wages for jurymen in the Heliaia (supreme court).^[27] His most contentious measure was the 451 BC law restricting Athenian citizenship to those with Athenian parentage on both sides.^[28] In 461 BC, Pericles politically eliminated Cimon through ostracism, accusing him of betraying Athens by aiding Sparta.^[26]

Unchallenged Leadership

Ephialtes's murder in 461 BC solidified Pericles's authority, making him the unchallenged leader of the democratic party and, effectively, the ruler of Athens until his death in 429 BC.^[36] Historians like Constantine Paparrigopoulos argue that Pericles aimed to expand and stabilize democratic institutions, granting lower classes access to the political system and public offices.^[29] Loren J. Samons II suggests Pericles believed in harnessing the *demos* as an untapped source of Athenian power, particularly for the navy.^[31]

Military Campaigns & Conflicts

First Peloponnesian War

Pericles's initial military engagements occurred during the First Peloponnesian War. In 454 BC, he led attacks on Sicyon and Acarnania, though an attempt to conquer Oeniadea was unsuccessful.^[38] A significant shift occurred in 451 BC when Pericles proposed a truce with Sparta, negotiated by the returning Cimon.^[40] This period also saw Athenian expeditions to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia, which ended disastrously, and a campaign in Cyprus where Cimon died.^[42]^[43] The "Peace of Callias," a disputed treaty, is thought to have ended hostilities with Persia around this time.^[45]

Athenian Hegemony & Revolts

Pericles sought to solidify Athens's dominance over its alliance, transforming the Delian League into an Athenian empire. Following a defeat in Egypt and subsequent allied revolts, Athens moved the League's treasury from Delos to Athens in 454–453 BC, a move that critics like Angelos Vlachos consider a significant misappropriation of funds, albeit one that financed monumental artistic creations.^[60]^[65] Around 447 BC, the Coinage Decree imposed Athenian currency, weights, and measures on all allies, further asserting control.^[50] Pericles also led campaigns to expel barbarians from the Thracian peninsula and established new cleruchies (Athenian settlements) in regions like Andros, Naxos, and Amphipolis.^[9]^[52]

The Samian War

In 440 BC, Samos went to war with Miletus. When Samos refused Athenian arbitration, Pericles led an expedition, defeating the Samian forces in a naval battle and imposing Athenian administration after an eight-month siege.^[66]^[67] He also quelled a revolt in Byzantium. Upon his return, he delivered a renowned funeral oration honoring the fallen soldiers.^[70]

The Peloponnesian War

Inevitable Conflict

Pericles was convinced that war with Sparta was unavoidable, driven by Sparta's envy of Athens's growing power.^[86] He dispatched troops to Corcyra to support its fleet against Corinth and later engaged Corinthian colonists at Potidaea, actions that fueled Corinth's animosity towards Athens.^[87] The "Megarian Decree," a trade embargo against Megara, further exacerbated tensions, leading Sparta to demand concessions from Athens, including the expulsion of Pericles's family and the decree's retraction.^[88] Pericles refused, believing that yielding would only invite further demands, thus choosing war.^[92]

Defensive Strategy

In 431 BC, as the Spartan army invaded Attica, Pericles implemented a defensive "grand strategy." He ordered the evacuation of the entire Attic population within Athens's walls, a difficult decision that caused considerable discontent among rural residents forced to abandon their homes and ancestral lands.^[96]^[97] Pericles steadfastly refused to engage the Spartan army directly, instead sending a fleet to plunder the Peloponnesian coasts.^[102] He also proposed a decree to set aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships for naval defense, with a death penalty for any proposal to use these funds otherwise.^[102]

Plague & Demise

In 430 BC, a devastating epidemic, likely typhus or typhoid fever, swept through Athens, exacerbated by the crowded conditions within the city walls.^[107]^[108] This "Plague of Athens" triggered public outrage, leading to Pericles's temporary removal from the generalship and a fine.^[106] Despite this, the Athenians soon re-elected him as *strategos* in 429 BC.^[109] However, the plague claimed his legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus, and Pericles himself succumbed to the disease later that year.^[111] Thucydides lamented Pericles's death as a disaster for Athens, noting the instability and populism of his successors.^[1]

Personal Life & Family

Marriages and Relationships

Following Athenian custom, Pericles initially married a close relative, with whom he had two sons, Paralus and Xanthippus. However, around 445 BC, he divorced his wife, offering her to another husband with the consent of her male relatives. Her name remains unknown, though she was previously married to Hipponicus and mothered Callias from that union.^[113]^[68]

Aspasia of Miletus

After his divorce, Pericles entered a long-term relationship with Aspasia of Miletus, an intelligent and influential woman renowned for her conversational skills and advisory capacity.^[114] Together, they had a son, Pericles the Younger. Despite Aspasia's high regard among Athenian socialites, her status as a non-Athenian led to attacks on their relationship, even from Pericles's own son, Xanthippus.^[111] Pericles, however, staunchly defended their union against accusations of corrupting Athenian society.^[115]

Loss and Legacy

The devastating Plague of Athens claimed the lives of Pericles's sister and both his legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus, leaving him overwhelmed with grief.^[111] In a striking testament to his influence and the city's respect, the Athenians, just before his death, amended the 451 BC citizenship law (which Pericles himself had proposed) to allow his son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, to become a citizen and legitimate heir.^[116]^[117]

Assessments of Pericles

Political Leadership

Pericles's political leadership elicits conflicting judgments. Some scholars view him as a populist and demagogue,^[119] while others admire his charismatic authority. Plutarch noted that Pericles, after assuming leadership, was no longer "submissive to the people" but guided them.^[120] Thucydides, an admirer, famously stated that Athens was "in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen," highlighting Pericles's ability to lead and even manipulate.^[1] However, Plato criticized Pericles for making Athenians "slothful, garrulous and avaricious" through public fees,^[122] and Plutarch echoed criticisms of his public measures leading to luxury rather than frugality.^[22]

Military Acumen

Pericles led numerous expeditions, primarily naval, for over two decades. He was known for his caution, avoiding battles with high uncertainty and resisting "vain impulses of the citizens."^[125] His military policy was rooted in Themistocles's principle that Athens's strength lay in its naval power, recognizing the Peloponnesians' land superiority.^[126] During the Peloponnesian War, he adopted a defensive "grand strategy" aimed at exhausting the enemy and preserving the *status quo*, characterized by rejecting appeasement and avoiding overextension.^[128] Historians like Hans Delbrück consider him a great statesman and military leader for his ability to persuade the public to follow this unpopular strategy.^[131] Critics, however, argue his strategy was too defensive and ultimately flawed, contributing to Athens's defeat.^[135]

Oratorical Skill

Pericles never wrote down his orations, so modern understanding relies heavily on Thucydides's recreations from memory.^[144]^[145] While some debate the extent of Thucydides's literary influence, many acknowledge Pericles's powerful rhetorical charisma. Diodorus Siculus noted his exceptional skill in oratory,^[155] and Plutarch described his calm, tranquil delivery, devoid of gimmicks.^[157] Ancient Greek writers often called him "Olympian," likening his speeches to Zeus's thunder and lightning.^[161] Quintilian noted Pericles's meticulous preparation, including prayers before speaking to ensure no improper word was uttered.^[162]

Pericles and the Divine

In ancient Athens, there was no separation of church and state; religion was deeply interwoven with civic life. Pericles, as *strategos* and orator, was a spokesman for this civic religion, overseeing constant offerings and massive architectural religious projects on the Acropolis and throughout Attica.^[163] Personally, he was sometimes seen as a protégé of Athena, and in Attic comedies, he was even assimilated to Zeus, though not always flatteringly.^[165] Philosophical accounts sometimes depicted him as a freethinker or close to the sophists, raising questions about religious tolerance in fifth-century Athens, especially given the impiety trials faced by his associates.^[165]

Enduring Legacy

Architectural & Artistic Grandeur

Pericles's most tangible legacy is found in the literary and artistic achievements of the Golden Age of Athens. The Acropolis, even in its ruined state, remains a powerful symbol of modern Athens and a testament to his vision. Historian Constantine Paparrigopoulos asserted that these masterpieces alone are "sufficient to render the name of Greece immortal in our world."^[134] His patronage fostered an environment of unparalleled creativity and intellectual flourishing.

Political Ideals & Debates

In politics, Pericles's legacy is complex. Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that Athenian imperialism, a core element of Pericles's policy, ultimately undermined true democracy and freedom for allied states, leading to Athens's downfall.^[166] Conversely, other analysts highlight the Athenian humanism and freedom of expression that characterized the Golden Age as Pericles's lasting contributions.^[170]^[171] He is often lauded as the "ideal type of the perfect statesman in ancient Greece," and his Funeral Oration remains a powerful symbol of participatory democracy and civic pride.^[134]^[173]

A Botanical Homage

Beyond the realm of history and politics, Pericles's name has even found its way into the natural sciences. In 1932, botanist Albert Charles Smith honored the statesman by naming a monotypic genus of flowering plants from Ecuador, *Periclesia*, after him, belonging to the Ericaceae family.^[174] This unique tribute underscores the enduring impact and recognition of his historical significance across diverse fields.

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References

Pericles held the generalship from 444 BC until 430 BC without interruption.[73]

Thucydides, 2.65

Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 24â25

Plutarch, Pericles, III.

Herodotus, VI, 131.

Plutarch, Pericles, IV

Plato, Alcibiades I, 118c

Plutarch, Pericles, XVI

Plutarch, Pericles, VII

Plutarch, Pericles, IX

Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 27

Plutarch, Cimon, XV

Plutarch, Cimon, XVI

Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 67â73

R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History

Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 25

Plutarch, Pericles, X

Thucydides, 1.111

Plutarch, Cimon, XVII

Plutarch, Pericles, XVII

Plutarch, Pericles, XIX

Plutarch, Pericles, XXIII

Plutarch, Pericles, XIV

Thucydides, 1.115

Plutarch, Pericles, XXV

Plutarch, Pericles, XXIV

Plutarch, Pericles, XXVIII

Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 31

Plutarch, Pericles, XXXI

Plutarch, Pericles, XXXII

Thucydides, 1.139

Fornara-Samons, Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles, 77

Thucydides, 1.31â54

Thucydides, 1.127

Thucydides, 1.140â144

Thucydides, 2.12

Thucydides, 2.14

Thucydides, 2.16

Thucydides, 2.13

Thucydides, 2.22

Thucydides, 2.35â46

Thucydides, 2.55

Thucydides, 2.56

Plutarch, Pericles, XXXV

Thucydides, 2.60â64

Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVIII

Plutarch, Pericles, XXXVII

Plutarch, Pericles, XV

Plato, Gorgias

J.S. Morrison-A. W. Gomme, Pericles Monarchos, 76â77.

Plutarch, Pericles, XVIII

Sir Richard C. Jebb, The Attic Orators

J.F. Dobson, The Greek Orators

Plutarch, Pericles, VIII

Cicero, De Oratote, II, 93

Quintilian, Institutiones, III, 1

Diodorus, XII, 39

Plutarch, Pericles, V

Plato, Gorgias, 455d

Plato, Menexenus, 236a

S. Sara Monoson, Plato's Democratic Entanglements, 182â186

Quintilian, Institutiones, XII, 9

Sourvinou-Inwood, C. 1990. What is polis religion? in The Greek City from Homer to Alexander, ed. O. Murray and S. Price. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 295â322.

Vincent Azoulay, 2014. Pericles of Athens, trans. Janet Lloyd. Princeton and Oxford, 107â108

L. Miller, My Favorite War

A full list of references for this article are available at the Pericles Wikipedia page

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Pericles: Architect of Athens' Golden Age

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🌟 The First Citizen of Athens

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Pericles: An Overview

The First Citizen of Athens

Cultural and Democratic Patron

A Life Interrupted by Plague

Early Life & Education

Noble Lineage

Intellectual Development

The Lion's Dream & Helmet

Political Ascent & Reforms

Early Political Engagements

Radical Democracy & Ostracism

Unchallenged Leadership

Military Campaigns & Conflicts

First Peloponnesian War

Athenian Hegemony & Revolts

The Samian War

The Peloponnesian War

Inevitable Conflict

Defensive Strategy

Plague & Demise

Personal Life & Family

Marriages and Relationships

Aspasia of Miletus

Loss and Legacy

Assessments of Pericles

Political Leadership

Military Acumen

Oratorical Skill

Pericles and the Divine

Enduring Legacy

Architectural & Artistic Grandeur

Political Ideals & Debates

A Botanical Homage

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

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Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice