What is the fundamental definition of a personal computer (PC)?

A personal computer, commonly referred to as a PC or simply a computer, is a computing device designed specifically for individual use. It is intended for direct operation by an end user, distinguishing it from larger systems like mainframes or minicomputers that are typically time-shared by multiple users.

What are the typical tasks performed on a personal computer?

Personal computers are generally used for a variety of tasks including word processing, browsing the internet, sending and receiving emails, playing multimedia content, and engaging in gaming. These activities are carried out directly by the individual user.

How does a personal computer differ from minicomputers and mainframes?

Unlike large, costly minicomputers and mainframes that serve many users simultaneously through time-sharing, personal computers are designed for single-user operation. This means they are not typically shared among multiple people at the same time.

What historical period saw the advent of personal computers and the Digital Revolution?

The advent of personal computers and the concurrent Digital Revolution occurred primarily in the late 1970s and 1980s. This era marked a significant shift in technology, profoundly impacting people's lives.

How has the software landscape evolved for personal computer users?

While early institutional computer users had to write their own programs, most personal computer users today rely on commercially available software, freeware, or free and open-source software. Software for personal computers is often developed and distributed independently from the hardware or operating system manufacturers.

What is the significance of the term 'PC' in the modern computing market?

Since the early 1990s, the term 'PC' has predominantly referred to systems using Microsoft Windows operating systems and Intel's x86 architecture, collectively known as Wintel. While originally encompassing any brand of personal computer, it now often specifically denotes Windows-based machines.

What are the main alternative operating systems and platforms to the dominant 'PC' platform?

Besides the dominant Windows platform, notable alternatives include Apple's Mac computers running macOS, and various Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and its derivatives like ChromeOS. Historically, platforms like the Amiga, Atari ST, and NEC PC-98 were also significant.

What key technological advancements in the 1960s paved the way for personal computers?

Major advances in semiconductor technology during the 1960s were foundational. This included the development of the silicon integrated circuit (IC) chip by Robert Noyce and the metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistor by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng. Federico Faggin's development of silicon-gate MOS technology led to the first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971.

What groundbreaking features were previewed by Douglas Engelbart in 1968?

In 1968, Douglas Engelbart, an SRI researcher, previewed several features that would later become staples of personal computers. These included e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video conferencing, and the computer mouse, though the demonstration required extensive technical support and a costly mainframe.

How were early personal computers (microcomputers) typically sold and operated in the 1970s?

In the 1970s, early personal computers, often called microcomputers, were frequently sold as kits and appealed mainly to hobbyists and technicians. Initial operation often involved toggle switches for input and front panel lamps for output, with practical use requiring the addition of peripherals like keyboards and displays.

What was the significance of the Micral N and the Datapoint 2200 in early personal computing?

The Micral N, built starting in 1972, was the earliest commercial, non-kit microcomputer based on the Intel 8008 microprocessor. It followed the Datapoint 2200 (1970), whose CPU design became the basis for the x86 architecture used in the original IBM PC.

What was the IBM SCAMP and its historical importance?

The IBM SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable), developed in 1973, was a prototype portable computer. It is recognized by PC Magazine as a 'revolutionary concept' and potentially the 'world's first personal computer' due to its single-user, portable design that emulated APL/1130 performance.

What was the Xerox Alto and its influence?

The Xerox Alto, developed in 1973 at Xerox PARC, was a seminal personal computer that featured a graphical user interface (GUI). Although not commercialized due to high costs, its GUI design later inspired Apple's Macintosh and Microsoft's Windows operating systems.

What marked the introduction of the first true personal computer according to many sources?

The introduction of the Altair 8800 in 1974 by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) is considered by many to be the first true personal computer. Based on the Intel 8080 microprocessor, it is widely credited with igniting the microcomputer revolution.

How did the Apple I differ from other hobbyist computers of its time?

The Apple I, sold by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak in 1976, differed by being a fully prepared circuit board rather than a kit. At the request of a retailer, it was delivered assembled and tested, though it still lacked a power supply, case, or keyboard.

What were the '1977 trinity' of personal computers?

The '1977 trinity' refers to three mass-market, ready-assembled personal computers introduced that year: the Commodore PET, the Apple II, and the TRS-80 from Tandy Corporation. These machines made computers accessible to a wider range of people, shifting focus towards software applications.

What was the significance of the IBM PC's introduction in 1981?

IBM's introduction of its first PC in August 1981 set a standard for PC architecture that became dominant in the mass market. This event was a major milestone in the widespread adoption and standardization of personal computers.

How did the Apple Macintosh, introduced in 1984, change personal computing?

The Apple Macintosh was the first successful mass-market computer to feature a mouse-driven graphical user interface (GUI), commonly known as 'WIMP' (Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers). It also introduced user-friendly applications like MacPaint and MacWrite, demonstrating WYSIWYG word processing.

What role did desktop publishing play in the success of the Macintosh?

Desktop publishing, introduced in 1985 through Apple's partnership with Adobe, significantly boosted the Macintosh's success. This innovation, coupled with the LaserWriter printer and Aldus PageMaker software, made the Mac a powerful tool for design and layout.

How did the World Wide Web impact the use of personal computers in the 1990s?

The public availability of the World Wide Web in 1991, combined with powerful personal computers featuring high-resolution graphics and sound, and the standardization of web browsers, laid the foundation for much of modern life. It enabled widespread access to information and services online.

What defines a workstation computer?

A workstation is a high-end personal computer designed for demanding technical, mathematical, or scientific applications. They typically feature powerful processors, advanced graphics, large storage, networking capabilities, and run multi-user operating systems.

What are the common styles of desktop computer cases?

Desktop computers are housed in various styles of cases, including large vertical tower cases and smaller models designed to fit behind or beneath monitors. While 'desktop' often implies a horizontal placement, the term generally encompasses both vertical tower and horizontal designs.

What distinguishes a gaming computer from a standard desktop?

A gaming computer is a desktop PC specifically configured with high-performance components, such as a powerful video card, processor, and ample RAM, to enhance the speed and responsiveness required for demanding video games.

What is an all-in-one computer?

An all-in-one computer, also known as a single-unit PC, integrates the monitor and the main computing components into a single unit. These often feature smaller, laptop-like internal components located behind the display, with a separate keyboard and mouse as input devices.

What is a home theater PC (HTPC)?

A home theater PC (HTPC) combines the functionality of a personal computer with that of a digital video recorder. Connected to a TV or display, it serves as a media center for playing music, videos, photos, and recording television programs, aiming to consolidate home entertainment components.

What are keyboard computers?

Keyboard computers are devices where the computer's processing components are integrated directly into the keyboard itself. These typically still require an external monitor or television for display.

What characterized early portable computers, often called 'luggables'?

Early portable computers, termed 'luggables,' were designed to be transportable but were quite heavy, often weighing around 50 pounds. Examples like the IBM 5100 featured integrated components like a display and drives within a suitcase-like housing, requiring AC power and having CRT displays.

How did the development of thinner screens affect portable computer design?

The advent of thin plasma and LCD screens allowed for a more compact portable computer form factor, sometimes called 'lunchbox' computers. These featured a screen as one side of the enclosure, with detachable keyboards and drives, and some even included batteries for operation away from power outlets.

What are the key design features and limitations of laptop computers?

Laptops are designed for portability with a clamshell form factor, integrating the keyboard and components in one panel and a hinged display in another. They typically include rechargeable batteries but often have reduced graphics performance compared to desktops due to integrated graphics chips and limited space for upgrades.

How do notebook computers differ from standard laptops?

Notebook computers, like the TRS-80 Model 100, were characterized by their smaller plan dimensions, roughly the size of a sheet of typing paper. They featured smaller keyboards and LCD screens, often with limited text display, but could operate for extended periods on batteries and frequently included modems.

What are netbooks, and how did they evolve?

Netbooks, also known as mini notebooks or subnotebooks, were a category of smaller, lower-performance laptops primarily suited for web-based applications. Initially defined by the lack of an optical drive and smaller size, they were often offered at low prices, sometimes bundled with data plans, before being largely replaced by Ultrabooks and Chromebooks.

What is the defining characteristic of a tablet computer?

A tablet computer is primarily defined by its touchscreen display, which can be operated using a stylus or finger. Some tablets offer hybrid designs, allowing the keyboard to be detached or the screen to fold over the keyboard, and they can run either desktop or specialized tablet operating systems.

How do smartphones relate to tablet computers?

Smartphones are similar to tablet computers in many ways, but their defining feature is integrated cellular connectivity. They are generally smaller than tablets and may not always adhere to the slate form factor typical of tablets.

What is an Ultra-mobile PC (UMPC)?

An Ultra-mobile PC (UMPC) is a small tablet computer developed by companies like Microsoft, Intel, and Samsung. These devices typically run operating systems such as Windows or Linux and are powered by low-voltage processors like Intel Atom.

What defined a Pocket PC?

A Pocket PC was a hardware specification for handheld computers, also known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), that ran Microsoft's Windows Mobile operating system. These devices offered many capabilities of desktop PCs and could be expanded with peripherals like GPS receivers and barcode readers.

What is the distinction between a personal computer and a smartphone in terms of functionality?

While both personal computers and smartphones are computing devices, smartphones are distinguished by their integrated cellular communication capabilities. They are generally more portable and designed for mobile communication alongside other computing tasks.

What are the core physical components of a typical desktop personal computer?

A typical desktop computer consists of a computer case (or tower) housing the power supply, motherboard, storage devices (like hard drives or SSDs), and often an optical disc drive. External peripherals include a monitor, keyboard, and a pointing device like a mouse.

How does a motherboard connect the various components of a personal computer?

The motherboard serves as the central hub, connecting the processor, memory (RAM), graphics cards, and peripheral devices. Components like the CPU and RAM modules plug directly into sockets on the motherboard, while other devices connect via expansion slots or ports.

What are expansion slots and buses used for in personal computers?

Expansion slots on the motherboard, connected via computer buses like PCI or PCI Express (PCIe), allow users to add functionality by installing expansion cards. These cards can provide capabilities such as enhanced graphics, sound, or network connectivity.

What is the role of system software and application software?

System software, such as operating systems, manages the computer's hardware and provides services for application software. Application software, like word processors or media players, performs specific tasks for the user, utilizing the services provided by the system software.

What is the primary function of an operating system (OS)?

An operating system (OS) manages a computer's resources, including memory, input/output devices, and file systems. It provides an interface for users and applications to interact with the hardware and facilitates essential tasks like networking and task prioritization.

How has the user interface for operating systems evolved?

Early personal computers primarily used command-line interfaces, requiring users to memorize commands. Over time, graphical user interfaces (GUIs), which use visual elements like icons and menus, became widespread due to advancements in display technology, making computers more accessible and user-friendly.

What are some common examples of application software suites?

Application software suites bundle multiple related applications together, often sharing a common user interface and interoperability features. Prominent examples include Microsoft Office and LibreOffice, which typically include a word processor, spreadsheet program, and other productivity tools.

What is the significance of 'user-friendliness' in personal computer software?

Given that many personal computer users are not programmers, software is often designed with simplicity and ease of use, or 'user-friendliness,' in mind. This focus ensures that a wide range of users can effectively utilize the software without needing extensive technical knowledge.

How significant is PC gaming in the overall gaming market?

PC gaming represents a substantial segment of the gaming market, holding a significant share and generating billions in revenue annually. It is also a major platform for competitive gaming, known as esports, featuring popular titles that drive the industry.

What are some major digital distributors for PC games?

Key digital distributors for PC games include platforms like Epic Games, Valve Corporation (Steam), Electronic Arts, and Ubisoft. These platforms allow users to purchase, download, and manage a wide variety of games.

How has the global market for personal computers evolved in terms of shipments?

The personal computer market has seen dramatic growth since its inception, with shipments increasing from tens of thousands in the 1970s to hundreds of millions annually in the 21st century. While experiencing periods of decline, particularly with the rise of mobile devices, the market has shown resilience and adaptation, with recent growth driven by factors like remote work and AI integration.

What factors have influenced the average selling price (ASP) of personal computers over time?

The average selling price of personal computers has generally declined over time due to lower production costs and increased capabilities. However, factors like the introduction of low-cost netbooks and shifts in market demand, such as the recent surge during the pandemic, have influenced pricing trends.

What is the environmental impact associated with personal computers?

Personal computers contribute significantly to electronic waste (e-waste), posing environmental challenges. The production and disposal of these devices involve resource consumption and potential pollution, leading to initiatives like extended producer responsibility (EPR) to manage their lifecycle.

How has the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) impacted the personal computer market?

The integration of AI capabilities into PCs is emerging as a significant trend, with projections indicating substantial growth in shipments of AI-capable PCs. These machines are expected to handle AI-driven tasks more efficiently, potentially reshaping the market landscape in the coming years.

Personal Computer Wiki: The Personal Computer: Architectures, Evolution, and Impact

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Terminology and Definition

Core Concept

A personal computer (PC) is a computing device engineered for individual utilization. It is designed for direct operation by an end user, distinguishing it from large-scale mainframe or minicomputer systems that typically require specialized operators or technicians. The advent of personal computers has been a pivotal element of the broader Digital Revolution, fundamentally altering societal structures and individual lives.

PC vs. Mac

The term "PC" is an initialism for "personal computer." While the IBM Personal Computer model incorporated this designation, the term originally encompassed personal computers irrespective of brand. In contemporary discourse, "PC" is often used to contrast with Apple's Macintosh platform, although both are fundamentally personal computers. The ubiquity of the Windows operating system on Intel x86 architecture hardware has led to "PC" often being colloquially synonymous with this specific configuration.

User Interaction

Unlike earlier computing paradigms that necessitated custom programming for basic tasks, modern personal computers typically run commercial or free and open-source software. This software is often developed and distributed independently of the hardware or operating system manufacturers, offering users a broad spectrum of applications without requiring them to be programmers themselves, although end-user programming remains a possibility.

Historical Trajectory

Early Precursors (Pre-1970s)

The conceptual groundwork for personal computing was laid by early experimental machines operated by single individuals, predating batch processing and time-sharing systems. Machines like the Bendix G15 and LGP-30 in the 1950s, and the Soviet MIR series in the 1960s, offered interactive, single-user operation, albeit at prohibitive costs and complexity for widespread personal ownership.

The 1970s: Birth of the Microcomputer

The development of semiconductor technology, particularly the silicon integrated circuit and the microprocessor, democratized computing. Early commercial microcomputers like the Micral N (1972) and the seminal Altair 8800 (1974) emerged, sparking the microcomputer revolution. The introduction of the Apple I (1976) and the "1977 trinity" (Commodore PET, Apple II, TRS-80) marked the transition from hobbyist kits to mass-market, ready-assembled machines, focusing on software applications.

1973: IBM SCAMP prototype, a precursor to the IBM 5100, demonstrated portable computing capabilities.
1973: Xerox Alto, developed at PARC, introduced the graphical user interface (GUI), influencing future designs.
1974: MITS Altair 8800, based on the Intel 8080, is widely considered the first successful personal computer.
1975: Microsoft's Altair BASIC became the first programming language for the Altair.
1977: The "Trinity" of home computing—Commodore PET, Apple II, and TRS-80—were released, making personal computing accessible.

The 1980s: Standardization and Growth

The 1980s witnessed the consolidation of the personal computer market. The IBM PC (1981) established a dominant architecture, leading to the "Wintel" (Windows-Intel) standard. Home computers became more sophisticated, featuring improved graphics and sound. Apple's Macintosh (1984) revolutionized user interaction with its GUI and mouse, setting new standards for usability.

1981: IBM PC introduced, establishing a dominant hardware standard.
1982: Time magazine named "The Computer" as Machine of the Year.
1984: Apple Macintosh launched, popularizing the GUI and mouse-driven interface.
Mid-1980s: Rise of home computers like the Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC, alongside influential workstations.
Late 1980s: Emergence of early portable computers and the beginnings of widespread internet connectivity.

The 1990s and Beyond: Connectivity and Ubiquity

The 1990s saw the World Wide Web become publicly accessible, transforming PCs into gateways for information and communication. The distinction between business and home computers blurred as capabilities converged. The subsequent decades have seen the rise of mobile computing, cloud integration, and increasingly powerful, specialized devices, though the core concept of the personal computer remains central.

1991: World Wide Web becomes publicly available, integrating PCs into a global network.
Mid-1990s: Desktop publishing emerges, driven by PC advancements and software integration.
2000s: Rise of mobile computing (laptops, smartphones, tablets) begins to challenge traditional PC dominance.
2010s-2020s: Increased focus on cloud computing, AI integration, and specialized PC form factors.

Diverse Form Factors

Stationary Systems

These computers are designed for fixed locations, typically a desk. They offer a balance of performance, expandability, and cost-effectiveness.

Desktop Computer: The archetypal stationary PC, housed in a tower or compact case, connected to external peripherals like monitors and keyboards.
Workstation: High-performance desktops optimized for demanding technical, scientific, or creative tasks, featuring powerful processors and graphics.
All-in-One Computer: Integrates monitor and computer components into a single unit, reducing desk clutter.
Nettop: Compact, low-power desktops designed primarily for web browsing and basic internet tasks.
Home Theater PC (HTPC): Designed to connect to televisions for media playback and home entertainment functions.
Keyboard Computer: Features the computer's core components integrated directly into the keyboard unit.

Portable Systems

Prioritizing mobility, these devices integrate essential components into a compact, often battery-powered form factor.

Luggable: Early portable computers, often suitcase-sized, with integrated displays and keyboards but still requiring significant effort to transport.
Laptop/Notebook: Clamshell-designed computers with integrated screens, keyboards, and batteries, offering significant portability.
Tablet: Touchscreen-based devices, controlled via stylus or finger, often featuring detachable keyboards or convertible designs.
Smartphone: Highly portable, cellular-integrated computing devices that have become ubiquitous personal tools.
Ultra-Mobile PC (UMPC): Small tablet computers designed for maximum portability and basic computing tasks.
Pocket PC/Palmtop: Handheld computers, often running specialized mobile operating systems, popular in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Fundamental Hardware Components

Core Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), or microprocessor, is the brain of the computer, executing instructions. It connects to the motherboard, the primary circuit board that integrates all essential components, including the CPU socket, RAM slots, and expansion slots.

Memory and Storage

Random Access Memory (RAM) provides fast, temporary storage for active programs and data. For persistent storage, hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) are utilized, storing the operating system, applications, and user files.

Input/Output and Peripherals

Peripherals are external devices that enhance functionality. Key input devices include the keyboard and mouse, while output devices comprise monitors and speakers. Connectivity is managed through ports like USB, facilitating the integration of a wide array of accessories such as printers, scanners, and external storage.

Software Ecosystem

Operating Systems

The Operating System (OS) manages hardware resources and provides an interface for users and applications. Dominant desktop OSs include Microsoft Windows, macOS, and various Linux distributions. These systems handle tasks like memory management, file system organization, and network communication.

Application Software

Application software performs specific tasks for the user. This category encompasses word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers, media players, and development tools. Software suites, like LibreOffice, bundle multiple applications, often sharing a common user interface and inter-application functionality.

Productivity: Word processors (e.g., LibreOffice Writer), spreadsheets (e.g., LibreOffice Calc), presentation software.
Communication: Web browsers (e.g., Firefox, Chrome), email clients, messaging applications.
Creative: Graphics editors (e.g., Krita), video editors, audio workstations.
Development: Integrated Development Environments (IDEs), compilers, debuggers.

Gaming and Entertainment

Personal computers are significant platforms for gaming, contributing substantially to the esports industry. Digital distribution platforms have streamlined access to a vast library of games across numerous genres. The PC gaming sector continues to evolve with advancements in hardware and immersive software experiences.

Market Dynamics and Sales

Market Evolution

The personal computer market has undergone dramatic transformation. From niche hobbyist devices, PCs evolved into essential tools for business and personal use. Sales figures illustrate this growth, with shipments increasing from thousands in the early days to hundreds of millions annually. The market share has seen shifts, with dominant architectures and form factors emerging and evolving over time.

Pricing and Value

Initially, personal computers were prohibitively expensive. However, technological advancements and increased production volumes led to a steady decline in average selling prices (ASPs). While component costs decreased, the capabilities and features of PCs significantly increased, offering greater value to consumers. The rise of netbooks and later, the shift towards mobile devices, further influenced pricing strategies and market segmentation.

The Mobile Shift

In recent years, the market has seen a significant shift towards mobile computing devices like smartphones and tablets, impacting traditional PC sales. While PCs remain crucial for productivity and specialized tasks, the growth trajectory has been influenced by the increasing capabilities and ubiquity of mobile platforms. Emerging trends like AI integration are now shaping the future of PC hardware and software.

Societal and Environmental Impact

Digital Revolution

Personal computers have been instrumental in the Digital Revolution, democratizing access to information, communication, and computation. They have transformed industries, enabled new forms of work and collaboration, and fundamentally altered how individuals interact with technology and each other.

Environmental Considerations

The widespread adoption of personal computers has contributed to a growing concern regarding electronic waste (e-waste). The lifecycle of PCs, from manufacturing to disposal, involves resource consumption and potential environmental hazards. Initiatives like extended producer responsibility (EPR) and responsible recycling programs aim to mitigate these impacts.

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References

Gene Carter, Wow! What a Ride!: A Quick Trip Through Early Semiconductor and Personal Computer Development, Lulu Press â 2016, chapter 8

Roy A. Allan, A Bibliography of the Personal Computer [electronic resource]: the Books and Periodical Articles, Allan Publishing â 2006, p. 73

Roy A. Allan, A Bibliography of the Personal Computer [electronic resource] : the Books and Periodical Articles, Allan Publishing â 2006, p. 80

The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge, Second Edition: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind (2007). Macmillan, p. 448.

Desktop notebooks stake their claim, accessed 19 October 2007

A full list of references for this article are available at the Personal computer Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an AI model, drawing upon scholarly and publicly available data. It is intended for educational and informational purposes, suitable for an audience pursuing higher education. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the provided source material, users are advised that this content is not a substitute for primary research or consultation with subject matter experts.

This is not technical advice. The information presented here should not be considered definitive guidance for hardware selection, software development, or IT infrastructure decisions. Always consult official documentation and qualified professionals for specific technical requirements and implementations.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any inaccuracies, omissions, or consequences arising from the use of this information.

The Personal Computer

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Terminology and Definition ℹ️

💻 Core Concept

🏷️ PC vs. Mac

⚙️ User Interaction

Historical Trajectory ⏳

📜 Early Precursors (Pre-1970s)

💡 The 1970s: Birth of the Microcomputer

🚀 The 1980s: Standardization and Growth

🌐 The 1990s and Beyond: Connectivity and Ubiquity

Diverse Form Factors 🧩

🖥️ Stationary Systems

🎒 Portable Systems

Fundamental Hardware Components ⚙️

🔩 Core Processing Unit

💾 Memory and Storage

🔌 Input/Output and Peripherals

Software Ecosystem 🖥️

🎛️ Operating Systems

📄 Application Software

🎮 Gaming and Entertainment

Market Dynamics and Sales 📊

📈 Market Evolution

💰 Pricing and Value

📱 The Mobile Shift

Societal and Environmental Impact 🌍

🧑‍💻 Digital Revolution

♻️ Environmental Considerations

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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References

📜 References

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Academic Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Terminology and Definition

Core Concept

PC vs. Mac

User Interaction

Historical Trajectory

Early Precursors (Pre-1970s)

The 1970s: Birth of the Microcomputer

The 1980s: Standardization and Growth

The 1990s and Beyond: Connectivity and Ubiquity

Diverse Form Factors

Stationary Systems

Portable Systems

Fundamental Hardware Components

Core Processing Unit

Memory and Storage

Input/Output and Peripherals

Software Ecosystem

Operating Systems

Application Software

Gaming and Entertainment

Market Dynamics and Sales

Market Evolution

Pricing and Value

The Mobile Shift

Societal and Environmental Impact

Digital Revolution

Environmental Considerations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice