What is the primary function of a pressure vessel?

A pressure vessel is fundamentally a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure that significantly differs from the surrounding ambient pressure. This containment is crucial for various industrial and commercial applications.

How does the ASME define a pressure vessel?

According to the ASME definition, a pressure vessel is a container specifically engineered to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.

What is the definition of a pressure vessel according to the Australian and New Zealand standard AS/NZS 1200:2000?

The Australian and New Zealand standard AS/NZS 1200:2000 defines a pressure vessel as any vessel subjected to internal or external pressure, including all connected components and accessories up to their connection points with external piping.

What are the typical components that make up a pressure vessel?

A pressure vessel typically consists of a shell and other necessary components that facilitate pressurization, pressure retention, depressurization, and access for maintenance and inspection.

Besides the main shell, what other elements might be considered part of a pressure vessel's structure?

Other elements that can be considered part of a pressure vessel's structure include shell penetrations and their closures, viewports, airlocks (especially in vessels for human occupancy), and any permanently attached structural components like foot rings, skids, handles, lugs, or mounting brackets, as these affect the vessel's integrity and strength.

What are some examples of pressure vessels classified by their function?

Pressure vessels can be categorized by function, including aerosol spray dispensers, air receiver tanks, autoclaves, boilers, flash evaporators, gas storage cylinders, hydraulic accumulators, pressure cookers, and chemical process reactors, among others.

What are the different categories of pressure vessels based on their construction method?

Pressure vessels can be categorized by their construction method, such as seamless metal pressure vessels, welded pressure vessels, riveted pressure vessels, filament wound pressure vessels, and composite overwrapped pressure vessels.

What types of materials are commonly used for constructing pressure vessels?

Common materials for pressure vessels include steel alloys, aluminum, titanium, composite materials like carbon fiber, polymers such as PET, and copper, with the choice depending on various application-specific factors.

What is a "Pressure Vessel for Human Occupancy" (PVHO), and what specific rules apply to it?

A PVHO is a pressure vessel designed to be occupied by one or more people, where the internal pressure differs from the external environment. More stringent safety rules apply to these vessels due to the human element involved.

In what diverse sectors are pressure vessels utilized?

Pressure vessels are utilized across a wide range of sectors, including industrial compressed air systems, boilers, domestic hot water tanks, diving equipment, mining operations, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear reactors, spacecraft, submarines, and automotive braking systems.

How do pressure vessels contribute to the functionality of spacecraft and submarines?

In spacecraft and submarines, pressure vessels serve as habitats or hulls that maintain a different atmospheric pressure than the external environment, providing life support and structural integrity against pressure differentials.

What is the "working pressure" of a pressure vessel?

The working pressure, also known as gauge pressure, is the difference between the pressure inside the vessel and the ambient pressure when the vessel is in operation.

What is the difference between a hypobaric vessel and a vacuum vessel?

A hypobaric vessel or a vacuum vessel is designed to hold a pressure lower than the ambient pressure, essentially creating a partial vacuum inside.

What is the theoretically ideal shape for a pressure vessel, and why is it often impractical?

Theoretically, a spherical shape is ideal for containing internal pressure because it distributes stress uniformly. However, spheres are more difficult and expensive to manufacture compared to other shapes.

What are the most common shapes for pressure vessels and their end caps?

The most common shape for pressure vessels is a cylinder, often fitted with end caps known as heads. These heads are frequently hemispherical, ellipsoidal, or torispherical (dished) in shape.

How does the minimum mass of a pressure vessel scale with its pressure, volume, and the material's strength-to-weight ratio?

The minimum mass of a pressure vessel scales directly with the pressure and volume it contains, and inversely with the strength-to-weight ratio of the material used. This means stronger, lighter materials allow for less massive vessels.

What is the formula for the minimum mass of a spherical pressure vessel, and what do the variables P, V, rho, and sigma represent?

The formula for the minimum mass (M) of a spherical pressure vessel is M = (3/2) * P * V * (rho / sigma). Here, P is the gauge pressure, V is the volume, rho is the density of the vessel material, and sigma is the maximum allowable stress the material can tolerate.

How does the mass of a pressure vessel scale with the volume of gas it contains, according to gas laws?

According to gas laws, the product PV (pressure times volume) is proportional to the mass of gas at a given temperature. Therefore, the mass of the pressure vessel scales proportionally with the mass of the gas stored, implying that tankage efficiency is independent of pressure for a given temperature.

What is the relationship between stress in the walls of a pressure vessel and its dimensions and internal pressure?

The normal tensile stress in the walls of a pressure vessel is directly proportional to the internal pressure and the vessel's radius, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the walls. This means thicker walls are needed for larger radii or higher pressures.

What are the formulas for hoop stress and longitudinal stress in a thin-walled spherical pressure vessel?

In a thin-walled spherical pressure vessel, both the hoop stress (circumferential stress) and the longitudinal stress are equal, calculated as sigma = (p * r) / (2 * t), where 'p' is the internal gauge pressure, 'r' is the inner radius, and 't' is the wall thickness.

What criterion determines if a pressure vessel is considered "thin-walled"?

A pressure vessel is generally considered "thin-walled" if its diameter is at least 10 times (and sometimes cited as 20 times) greater than its wall thickness. This classification simplifies stress calculations.

What are the formulas for hoop stress and longitudinal stress in a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel?

For a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel, the hoop stress (circumferential) is sigma_theta = (p * r) / t, and the longitudinal stress is sigma_long = (p * r) / (2 * t), where 'p' is the internal gauge pressure, 'r' is the inner radius, and 't' is the wall thickness.

How do ASME BPVC formulas for stress in cylindrical shells differ from basic thin-walled formulas?

ASME BPVC formulas for cylindrical shells incorporate additional empirical terms, such as factors related to joint efficiency (E) and adjustments for stress distribution across the thickness (e.g., p(r+0.2t)/2tE for spherical shells and p(r+0.6t)/tE for cylindrical shells), to account for real-world conditions like welds and corrosion allowances.

What is the purpose of shell penetrations in pressure vessels, and why must they be carefully designed?

Shell penetrations are intentional openings in the vessel's shell to allow passage of contents or services (like electricity or light). They are critical points that can cause local stress concentrations, so they must be reinforced and accounted for in the design to prevent failure.

What types of screw threads are used for high-pressure vessel shell penetrations, and what are some associated standards?

High-pressure vessel shell penetrations commonly use tapered threads (like the 17E and 25E standards) or parallel threads (like ISO metric or UNF standards). These threads are designed for secure connections and sealing.

How are parallel thread valves typically sealed on pressure vessel necks?

Parallel thread valves on pressure vessel necks are typically sealed using an elastomer O-ring, which fits into a chamfer or step in the cylinder neck and seals against the valve flange.

What is a pressure vessel closure, and how can its design utilize internal pressure for safety?

A pressure vessel closure is a component designed for access to the vessel's interior, such as for maintenance. Placing the closure on the high-pressure side of the opening allows the internal pressure itself to help lock the closure securely, preventing inadvertent opening under load.

What is an airlock, and in what diverse environments are they employed?

An airlock is a chamber with two airtight doors, arranged sequentially, that allows passage between environments with different pressures or atmospheric compositions while minimizing exchange between them. They are used in spacecraft for EVAs, underwater for submersibles, and in various industrial settings.

What factors influence the selection of materials for constructing a pressure vessel?

The choice of material depends on factors such as pressure rating, operating temperature, the nature of the contents, weight constraints, working environment, cost, availability, required lifespan, and ease of inspection and maintenance.

Why is steel a common material for pressure vessels, and what specific properties are considered?

Steel is common due to its strength, weldability, and availability. Properties like impact resistance (especially for low temperatures), corrosion resistance, ductility, and performance during cold working are critical considerations.

What are the advantages of using composite materials for pressure vessels?

Composite materials offer advantages such as relatively light weight, excellent corrosion resistance, flexibility in design, and potentially lower fabrication costs for certain applications, largely due to the high tensile strength of fibers like carbon fiber.

What is a composite overwrapped pressure vessel (COPV)?

A COPV typically consists of a non-structural liner, often made of metal, that is wrapped with a structural fiber composite material, usually carbon fiber embedded in a polymer matrix, to provide strength and containment.

What is the purpose of lining a pressure vessel with materials like metals, ceramics, or polymers?

Liners are used to prevent leakage, protect the vessel's structure from corrosion or chemical attack by the contained medium, and in some cases, the liner itself may bear a significant portion of the pressure load.

How can materials weak in tension, such as concrete, be utilized in pressure vessel construction?

Materials weak in tension can be used for pressure vessels by incorporating external cabling, either wrapped around the vessel or embedded within its wall. This cabling provides the necessary tensile strength to resist internal pressure, while a leakproof membrane lines the interior.

What is the significance of "specific strength" and "specific modulus" in relation to pressure vessel mass and material choice?

Specific strength (strength-to-weight ratio) and specific modulus (stiffness-to-weight ratio) are crucial for minimizing the mass of pressure vessels, especially where weight is a critical constraint. Higher specific strength allows for thinner, lighter walls under internal pressure, while higher specific modulus is important for resisting buckling under external pressure.

What is the primary failure mode for submarine and submersible hulls under external pressure?

For structures subjected to external pressure, such as submarine and submersible hulls, buckling instability leading to collapse is often the critical failure mode, making material stiffness a key design consideration.

What advantages do anisotropic materials offer in the design of pressure vessels?

Anisotropic materials, like fiber-reinforced composites, allow fibers to be precisely aligned in the directions where stress is highest, enabling more efficient load support and potentially reducing the overall material mass required compared to isotropic materials.

What was the historical method for constructing boilers and compressed air receivers before modern welding techniques became prevalent?

Historically, riveting was the standard method for constructing boilers and compressed air receivers. Sheets of metal were shaped and joined using rivets, often with butt straps and caulking to ensure a seal.

What are the key non-destructive testing (NDT) methods used to ensure the quality of welds in pressure vessels?

Key NDT methods include ultrasonic testing, radiography (X-ray), magnetic particle inspection, and dye penetrant inspection, which help detect internal flaws, surface cracks, porosity, and other defects in welds.

What are some of the common welding processes employed in the construction of pressure vessels?

Common welding processes include Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), and Submerged Arc Welding (SAW).

Describe the backward extrusion process used for manufacturing seamless aluminum cylinders.

Backward extrusion involves forcing a heated metal billet into a die, causing the material to flow back along the mandrel between the die and mandrel. This process forms a closed-end tube, which is then further processed to create the final cylinder shape.

What are the four defined types of gas storage cylinders based on their structural principles?

The four types are: Type 1 (Full metal), Type 2 (Hoop wrap reinforcement on a metal cylinder), Type 3 (Fully wrapped composite over a metal liner), and Type 4 (Fully wrapped composite over a non-metal liner).

What is the optimal winding angle for composite cylindrical pressure vessels, and why?

The optimal winding angle for composite cylindrical pressure vessels is approximately 54.7 degrees relative to the cylinder axis. This angle provides the ideal balance to handle both hoop (circumferential) and longitudinal stresses efficiently.

What safety devices are typically incorporated into pressure vessels to prevent overpressure?

Pressure vessels are typically equipped with safety valves or relief valves designed to release excess pressure. Additionally, rupture discs or fusible plugs may be included to protect against overheating or overpressure scenarios.

What does the "leak before burst" design principle mean for pressure vessels?

Leak before burst is a design philosophy where a vessel is engineered so that any crack that forms will grow through the wall, causing a leak and gradual pressure release, before it can propagate to a size that causes catastrophic, explosive failure.

What is the typical ratio of hydrostatic test pressure to working pressure for pressure vessels?

Hydrostatic test pressure is usually set at 1.5 times the vessel's working pressure. However, specific standards, like the US DOT standard for scuba cylinders, may use different ratios, such as 5/3 (approximately 1.67) times the working pressure.

What are the key international codes and directives that govern the design and certification of pressure vessels?

Key governing documents include the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) in North America, the EU Pressure Equipment Directive (PED), Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS), Canadian CSA B51, Australian Standards, and various international standards from organizations like Lloyd's Register and Germanischer Lloyd.

When was the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) first developed, and what prompted its creation?

The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) was first developed starting in 1911 and released in 1914. Its creation was prompted by a high frequency of dangerous and often fatal explosions associated with early steam boilers and pressure vessels due to inadequate design, materials, and manufacturing techniques.

What advancements in materials and testing have improved pressure vessel engineering?

Advancements include new material grades with enhanced corrosion resistance and strength, improved non-destructive examination techniques like phased array ultrasonic testing and radiography, and more accurate stress analysis methods such as Finite Element Analysis (FEA).

What are some alternatives to using pressure vessels in domestic water collection systems?

Alternatives include gravity-controlled systems, where water is stored in an unpressurized tank at a higher elevation, and systems using inline pump controllers or pressure-sensitive pumps that activate on demand.

Pressure Vessel Wiki: Containment Under Pressure: An Engineering Deep Dive

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Definition and Scope

Core Definition

A pressure vessel is fundamentally a container engineered to safely hold gases or liquids at a pressure significantly different from the ambient atmospheric pressure.^[1]^[2]

Design Considerations

The selection of materials and construction methodologies is dictated by critical parameters such as the vessel's size, its intended contents, the operational pressure and temperature, mass constraints, and the required number of units. These factors collectively influence the vessel's integrity and safety profile.^[3]

Operational Hazards

Historically, the development and operation of pressure vessels have been associated with significant risks, including fatal accidents. Consequently, their design, manufacture, and operation are rigorously regulated by engineering authorities and legislative frameworks across various jurisdictions.^{[citation needed]}

Essential Components

Structural Elements

A pressure vessel typically consists of a main shell designed to withstand pressure. It is usually complemented by other components essential for pressurization, pressure retention, depressurization, and facilitating maintenance and inspection.

Ancillary Systems

Integral parts may include shell penetrations, closures, viewports, and airlocks, particularly for vessels intended for human occupancy. These components are critical as they influence the shell's overall integrity and strength. Pressure gauges and safety devices like relief valves are also often considered integral parts of the system.^[3]

Structural Attachments

Permanently attached structural components, such as foot rings, skids, handles, lugs, or mounting brackets, may also be part of the vessel assembly, aiding in its lifting, movement, or mounting.

Classifications of Pressure Vessels

By Function

Pressure vessels serve diverse functions, from storing gases and liquids to facilitating chemical reactions and maintaining atmospheric conditions. Examples include gas storage cylinders, boilers, autoclaves, reactors, and life support systems for spacecraft and submarines.

Gas storage cylinders
Boilers and autoclaves
Chemical process reactors
Hydraulic accumulators
Refrigeration plants
PVHO (Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy) including spacecraft and submarine hulls

By Construction Method

The method of fabrication significantly impacts a vessel's properties and applications. Common methods include seamless construction, welding, riveting (historically), and filament winding for composite materials.

Seamless metal pressure vessels
Welded pressure vessels
Riveted pressure vessels (historical)
Filament wound pressure vessels
Composite overwrapped pressure vessels

By Material

Material selection is paramount, balancing strength, weight, corrosion resistance, cost, and operating conditions. Common materials range from various steel alloys and aluminum to advanced composites and polymers.

Steel alloys (carbon steel, stainless steel)
Aluminum alloys
Titanium
Composite materials (e.g., carbon fiber reinforced polymers)
Polymers (e.g., PET for beverage containers)
Copper

Diverse Applications

Industrial Sector

Pressure vessels are ubiquitous in industry, serving as compressed air receivers, boilers for steam generation, distillation towers in refineries, and reactors in chemical plants. They are critical for processes requiring controlled high-pressure environments.

Aerospace and Transport

In aerospace, they are vital for life support systems in spacecraft and pressurized aircraft cabins. In transportation, they are used for air brake reservoirs in rail and road vehicles, and for storing liquefied gases like LPG and ammonia.

Specialized Applications

Beyond industrial uses, pressure vessels are found in diving cylinders, recompression chambers, and even domestic systems like hot water tanks and water well pressure tanks, demonstrating their broad utility.

Engineering Design Principles

Working Pressure and Shape

The primary design parameter is the working pressure, the difference between internal and external pressure. While spheres are theoretically the strongest shape for containing internal pressure, cylinders with domed or ellipsoidal ends are commonly used due to manufacturing practicality.^[4]^[6]

Scaling and Stress Analysis

The minimum mass of a pressure vessel scales with pressure, volume, and the material's specific strength. Stress within the vessel walls is proportional to pressure and radius, and inversely proportional to wall thickness. Advanced analysis, like Lamé's theorem and Finite Element Analysis (FEA), refines these calculations for complex geometries and thick walls.^[8]^[12]

For thin-walled spherical vessels, hoop and longitudinal stress are equal:

\sigma _{\theta }=\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}

For thin-walled cylindrical vessels:

\sigma _{\theta }={\frac {pr}{t}}

\sigma _{\rm {long}}={\frac {pr}{2t}}

Where p is internal gauge pressure, r is the inner radius, and t is the wall thickness. Design codes incorporate factors for weld quality and corrosion allowances.

Mass Efficiency

The minimum mass of a pressure vessel is inversely proportional to the material's strength-to-weight ratio. For gas storage, the mass efficiency (ratio of vessel mass to stored gas mass) is theoretically independent of pressure, but practical considerations like material properties and safety factors are crucial.^[7]

Manufacturing Processes

Welded Construction

Modern pressure vessels are predominantly constructed using welding techniques. The quality of welds is paramount for safety, especially in vessels for human occupancy. Rigorous inspection methods, including radiographic and ultrasonic testing, ensure weld integrity.^[30]

Seamless Fabrication

Seamless vessels, often made from metal billets through processes like backward extrusion or deep drawing, are common for smaller diameter, high-pressure gas cylinders. These methods minimize stress concentrations and ensure consistent material properties.^[32]

Composite Materials

Composite pressure vessels, utilizing filament winding with polymer matrices, offer advantages in weight reduction and corrosion resistance. They are classified into types based on the liner and wrapping method, with Type 4 (non-metal liner) representing a significant advancement in lightweight design.^[35]

Ensuring Operational Safety

Overpressure Protection

Safety valves and relief valves are critical safety devices designed to prevent the vessel's internal pressure from exceeding its design limits during operation. Rupture discs and fusible plugs offer additional layers of protection against overpressure and overheating.^[40]

Leak-Before-Burst Design

Many modern standards mandate or encourage "leak-before-burst" designs. This principle ensures that any crack developing in the vessel wall will propagate through the thickness, causing a leak and gradual pressure release, rather than leading to catastrophic, explosive failure.^[40]^[41]

Standards and Certification

The design, manufacture, and operation of pressure vessels are governed by stringent international and national standards (e.g., ASME BPVC, EN 13445, PED). Compliance is verified through rigorous testing and certification processes, ensuring adherence to safety regulations.^[42]

Historical Evolution

Early Concepts

The conceptualization of pressure vessels dates back to Leonardo da Vinci in the late 15th century. However, their practical development accelerated during the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s with the advent of steam power.^[6]

Industrial Revolution & Safety

Early steam boilers, while revolutionary, were often associated with frequent and deadly explosions due to inadequate materials, design, and manufacturing knowledge. This led to the gradual implementation of safety regulations and the development of standardized codes, such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, beginning in the early 20th century.^[6]

Modern Advancements

The mid-20th century saw significant advancements, including the widespread adoption of welding over riveting, the development of high-strength materials, and sophisticated analysis techniques like FEA. These innovations enabled the creation of safer, lighter, and more efficient pressure vessels for increasingly demanding applications.^[6]

Alternative Containment Strategies

Gravity-Fed Systems

In certain applications, like domestic water collection, gravity-controlled systems offer an alternative. These utilize elevated, unpressurized tanks, relying on hydrostatic pressure generated by the height difference to supply water, avoiding the need for a pressure vessel.^[48]

Smart Controls

Modern systems may employ inline pump controllers or pressure-sensitive pumps that manage fluid delivery without requiring a traditional pressure tank, offering potentially more efficient and responsive operation.

Nuclear Reactor Coolants

In nuclear energy, alternative coolants (molten salts, liquid metals, gases) are explored to reduce the high pressures required for water-cooled reactors, thereby potentially simplifying vessel design and enhancing safety, though each approach has its own set of challenges.^[50]

References

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References

Nilsen, Kyle. (2011) "Development of low pressure filter testing vessel and analysis of electrospun nanofiber membranes for water treatment"

NASA Tech Briefs, "Making a Metal-Lined Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel", 1 Mar 2005.

MIT pressure vessel lecture

ANSI/AIAA S-080-1998, Space Systems â Metallic Pressure Vessels, Pressurized Structures, and Pressure Components, Â§5.1

A full list of references for this article are available at the Pressure vessel Wikipedia page

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Important Notice

This content has been generated by an AI model and is intended for educational and informational purposes only. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy based on the provided source material, it may not be exhaustive or reflect the absolute latest developments.

This is not engineering advice. The information presented here is not a substitute for professional engineering consultation, design, or safety assessment. Always consult qualified professionals and adhere to relevant industry codes and standards for any real-world application involving pressure vessels.

The creators of this page are not liable for any errors, omissions, or consequences arising from the use of this information.

Containment Under Pressure

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Definition and Scope ℹ️

📦 Core Definition

⚙️ Design Considerations

⚠️ Operational Hazards

Essential Components 🔩

🏗️ Structural Elements

🔧 Ancillary Systems

🔗 Structural Attachments

Classifications of Pressure Vessels 📚

🎯 By Function

🔩 By Construction Method

💎 By Material

Diverse Applications 🏭

🏭 Industrial Sector

🚀 Aerospace and Transport

🤿 Specialized Applications

Engineering Design Principles 📐

⚖️ Working Pressure and Shape

📏 Scaling and Stress Analysis

📈 Mass Efficiency

Manufacturing Processes 🛠️

🔗 Welded Construction

⚪ Seamless Fabrication

🧵 Composite Materials

Ensuring Operational Safety 🛡️

🚨 Overpressure Protection

💧 Leak-Before-Burst Design

📜 Standards and Certification

Historical Evolution ⏳

📜 Early Concepts

📈 Industrial Revolution & Safety

🚀 Modern Advancements

Alternative Containment Strategies 🔄

💧 Gravity-Fed Systems

💡 Smart Controls

⚛️ Nuclear Reactor Coolants

References 🔗

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Definition and Scope

Core Definition

Design Considerations

Operational Hazards

Essential Components

Structural Elements

Ancillary Systems

Structural Attachments

Classifications of Pressure Vessels

By Function

By Construction Method

By Material

Diverse Applications

Industrial Sector

Aerospace and Transport

Specialized Applications

Engineering Design Principles

Working Pressure and Shape

Scaling and Stress Analysis

Mass Efficiency

Manufacturing Processes

Welded Construction

Seamless Fabrication

Composite Materials

Ensuring Operational Safety

Overpressure Protection

Leak-Before-Burst Design

Standards and Certification

Historical Evolution

Early Concepts

Industrial Revolution & Safety

Modern Advancements

Alternative Containment Strategies

Gravity-Fed Systems

Smart Controls

Nuclear Reactor Coolants

References

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice