What was the Prohibition era in the United States, and when did it occur?

The Prohibition era in the United States was a period from 1920 to 1933 during which the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages were prohibited nationwide. This nationwide ban was established by the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and was later repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment.

What constitutional amendments established and repealed Prohibition?

Prohibition was formally established nationwide by the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which was ratified on January 16, 1919. It was later repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment, ratified on December 5, 1933, marking the only time in American history that a constitutional amendment was passed to repeal another.

Who were the primary proponents of Prohibition in the 19th century, and what were their stated goals?

In the 19th century, Prohibition was primarily advocated by Pietistic Protestants. Their goals were to heal what they perceived as an ill society plagued by alcohol-related issues such as alcoholism, domestic violence, and political corruption stemming from saloons. They framed their movement as a battle for public morals and health.

Which organizations were instrumental in coordinating and advancing the Prohibition movement?

The Prohibition movement gained significant momentum through organizations like the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874, and the Anti-Saloon League, which became the movement's primary coordinator after 1900. These groups mobilized a national grassroots base and lobbied effectively for prohibition laws.

What was the Volstead Act, and what was its role in enforcing Prohibition?

The Volstead Act, officially known as the National Prohibition Act, was passed by Congress over President Woodrow Wilson's veto in October 1919. It served as the enabling legislation for the Eighteenth Amendment, defining intoxicating liquors and establishing the rules and penalties for enforcing the federal ban on alcohol.

What exceptions were made to the Prohibition laws under the Volstead Act?

While the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of most alcoholic beverages, it did permit the religious use of wine and allowed individuals to make up to 200 gallons of wine or cider from fruit at home, though beer production was not permitted. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were generally not illegal under federal law, though state laws varied.

How did the entry of the U.S. into World War I impact the Prohibition movement?

The U.S. entry into World War I against Germany in 1917 marginalized groups opposing Prohibition, particularly German-American communities. Furthermore, a new justification for Prohibition emerged: conserving grain for the war effort by halting alcohol production. This wartime measure, though intended to save resources, contributed to the momentum for nationwide Prohibition.

What was the "Thirsty First"?

The "Thirsty First" refers to July 1, 1919, the date when the temporary Wartime Prohibition Act took effect, banning the sale of alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content greater than 1.28%. This date preceded the full national Prohibition that began on January 17, 1920, following the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment.

What arguments did opponents of Prohibition raise in the late 1920s?

Opponents of Prohibition in the late 1920s argued that the policy led to a loss of tax revenue, particularly during the Great Depression. They also contended that it imposed "rural" Protestant values on urban America and contributed to the rise of organized crime and black markets for alcohol.

What were some of the claimed positive health effects of Prohibition?

Research indicates that during Prohibition, rates of liver cirrhosis, alcoholic psychosis hospital admissions, and general drunkenness arrests declined. This suggests that the ban on alcohol consumption had a positive impact on certain public health indicators, despite widespread violations of the law.

What was the economic impact of Prohibition on the alcohol industry and government revenue?

Prohibition led to the shutdown of numerous distilleries, breweries, and liquor stores, causing a significant loss of tax revenue for federal, state, and local governments. For example, alcohol commerce previously accounted for about 14% of federal, state, and local tax revenues. The enforcement of Prohibition also led to increased government spending on enforcement agencies.

How did Prohibition affect the availability and consumption of alcohol?

While Prohibition aimed to eliminate alcohol consumption, it led to the development of widespread black markets and illegal activities like bootlegging and rum-running. Some studies suggest alcohol consumption declined initially, while others indicate it did not decrease significantly in the long term, with many Americans finding ways to obtain alcohol illegally.

What role did organized crime play during the Prohibition era?

Prohibition provided a significant financial basis for organized crime to flourish. Criminal organizations, previously focused on activities like prostitution and gambling, expanded into the highly profitable and often violent black market for alcohol, leading to increased criminal activity and violence.

What were the consequences of the government's attempts to denature industrial alcohol to prevent its diversion for consumption?

To prevent bootleggers from using industrial alcohol, the government mandated its denaturation with poisonous additives. However, bootleggers hired chemists to remove these toxins, leading the government to add more deadly poisons, including methanol. This practice resulted in thousands of deaths and illnesses among those who consumed the poisoned alcohol.

How did Prohibition impact the social lives of women and the nature of public drinking establishments?

With the decline of traditional saloons, which were primarily male-dominated spaces, Prohibition led to the rise of speakeasies. These establishments were more socially integrated, leading to increased acceptance of women drinking publicly and making them a new target demographic for alcohol marketers. Women also found opportunities in the bootlegging business.

What was the impact of Prohibition on the music industry, particularly jazz?

Prohibition indirectly boosted the popularity of jazz music. Speakeasies became major venues for jazz performances, and the migratory patterns influenced by the Great Depression helped spread jazz across the country. The music's association with the lively, often illicit, atmosphere of speakeasies contributed to its skyrocketing popularity.

What was the economic argument for repealing Prohibition?

A key economic argument for repealing Prohibition was the potential to generate significant tax revenue from the legal sale of alcohol, which was particularly crucial during the Great Depression when government revenues had plummeted. Legalizing beer and wine, as done with the Cullen-Harrison Act, also created jobs in the brewing and related industries.

What was the significance of the Cullen-Harrison Act?

The Cullen-Harrison Act, signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 22, 1933, legalized the manufacture and sale of beer with 3.2% alcohol by weight and light wines. This act was a precursor to the full repeal of Prohibition and was famously met with Roosevelt's remark, 'I think this would be a good time for a beer.'

Which states notably refused to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment, which enacted Prohibition?

Only two states refused to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment: Connecticut and Rhode Island. All other 46 states ratified the amendment, leading to the nationwide implementation of Prohibition.

What was the role of medicinal liquor prescriptions during Prohibition?

During Prohibition, doctors could prescribe alcohol, primarily whiskey, for medicinal purposes. This created a legal loophole, with physicians writing millions of prescriptions annually and earning significant income. The practice was so widespread that counterfeit prescriptions were common, and even major drugstore chains like Walgreens reportedly benefited greatly from medicinal alcohol sales.

How did Prohibition affect the wine industry in the United States?

Prohibition had a detrimental effect on the nascent American wine industry. Productive wine-grape vineyards were often replaced with lower-quality, thicker-skinned grapevines suitable for shipping as concentrate. Much of the industry's institutional knowledge was lost as winemakers emigrated or left the business altogether.

What was the "wine brick" or "wine block" phenomenon during Prohibition?

During Prohibition, enterprising grape farmers produced concentrated grape juice, often sold as "wine bricks" or "wine blocks." These were sold with warnings advising against steps that would lead to fermentation, such as storing the diluted juice for extended periods, as this would turn it into wine. This practice significantly increased grape cultivation, particularly in California.

What were some of the arguments used by "wet" supporters against Prohibition?

Supporters of alcohol, often referred to as "wets," argued for personal liberty, the potential for new tax revenues from legal alcohol sales, and the need to combat the rise of organized crime fueled by the illegal alcohol trade. They also criticized the imposition of rural, Protestant values on urban America.

How did the federal government attempt to prevent the use of industrial alcohol for illegal beverage production?

The federal government mandated the denaturation of industrial alcohol by adding unpalatable or poisonous substances. This was intended to make it unfit for consumption. However, bootleggers often found ways to remove these additives or used the poisoned alcohol, leading to severe health consequences.

What was the stance of the Catholic Church and German Lutheran communities on Prohibition?

The Catholic Church and German Lutheran communities were generally opposed to Prohibition, viewing it as an imposition of "rural" Protestant values on "urban" America and an infringement on personal liberty. They denounced the idea that the government should define morality and criminalize common practices, including the liturgical use of wine.

What was the "bootlegging" industry, and how did it operate?

Bootlegging was the illegal production, transport, and sale of alcoholic beverages during Prohibition. It involved various methods, including smuggling from neighboring countries, illicit home distillation (producing "moonshine" or "bathtub gin"), and repurposing industrial alcohol. This created a vast black market that often involved organized crime.

What were "rum rows" and "rum-running"?

"Rum rows" were areas offshore where ships carrying illegal alcohol would anchor, and "rum-running" was the practice of smuggling this alcohol into the United States, often using fast boats to evade law enforcement. Border areas, like the Detroit River, and coastal regions were particularly active in this trade.

How did Prohibition influence the expansion of federal government powers?

Prohibition led to an expansion of federal government powers, particularly in law enforcement and surveillance. Agencies like the Bureau of Prohibition were created, and the use of tactics like telephone wiretapping for evidence collection increased, contributing to the growth of the penal state.

What was the "dry crusade" and its connection to religious movements?

The "dry crusade" refers to the sustained effort by temperance and prohibition movements, often fueled by Pietistic Protestant denominations and revivalist movements like the Second and Third Great Awakenings. These groups viewed alcohol consumption as a sin and a root cause of societal problems, advocating for legal prohibition as a solution.

What was the "Do Everything" doctrine of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)?

Under the leadership of Frances Willard, the WCTU adopted the "Do Everything" doctrine, which encouraged its members to engage in a wide range of social reforms beyond temperance. This included advocating for prison reform, labor laws, and women's suffrage, using the temperance cause as a platform to enter politics and influence public policy.

How did the Prohibition era change the social perception of women drinking alcohol?

The Prohibition era saw a shift in the social perception of women drinking. As saloons declined and speakeasies emerged as more integrated social spaces, public drinking by women became more common and less stigmatized, moving away from the association with immorality or prostitution that existed in earlier periods.

What was the impact of Prohibition on absenteeism in the workplace?

Prohibition led to a decrease in workplace absenteeism. For example, the Ford Motor Company documented a significant drop in absenteeism in May 1918 compared to April of the same year, suggesting that reduced alcohol consumption contributed to a more reliable workforce.

What was the "legal fiction" that allowed some wine production during Prohibition?

The Volstead Act contained a "legal fiction" that permitted individual farmers to make certain wines from fruit for "home consumption." This allowed for the production of up to 200 gallons of wine or cider annually, which many took advantage of, leading to increased grape cultivation.

How did Prohibition affect the U.S. wine industry's knowledge base and grape cultivation?

Prohibition significantly impacted the U.S. wine industry by destroying a fledgling sector. Productive wine-quality grapevines were replaced by hardier, lower-quality varieties, and much of the winemaking knowledge was lost as experienced winemakers either left the country or the industry entirely.

What was the general trend of crime rates during the Prohibition era, according to various studies?

The effect of Prohibition on crime rates is debated. Some studies suggest an increase in crime, particularly violent crime and organized crime, due to the black market for alcohol. However, other scholars argue that crime rates were more influenced by factors like urbanization and that reliable statistics from the era are scarce, making definitive conclusions difficult.

What was the "Great Experiment" referred to in discussions about Prohibition?

The "Great Experiment" was a term used to describe the nationwide Prohibition of alcohol in the United States. It was seen as a significant social and legislative undertaking aimed at improving public health and morals, but its effectiveness and consequences remain a subject of historical debate.

What was the sentiment regarding the permanence of Prohibition after its enactment?

Following the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment, supporters were confident that Prohibition would be permanent, as constitutional amendments had historically persisted. Senator Morris Sheppard famously quipped that repealing it was as likely as a hummingbird flying to Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail.

What was the role of the Ku Klux Klan in relation to Prohibition enforcement?

The Ku Klux Klan actively denounced bootleggers and threatened vigilante action against offenders during the Prohibition era. However, despite its large membership in the mid-1920s, the KKK was poorly organized and had little practical effect on Prohibition enforcement, and after 1925, it even contributed to disparaging enforcement efforts.

What was the economic argument for legalizing 3.2% beer and light wines in 1933?

The legalization of 3.2% beer and light wines through the Cullen-Harrison Act in 1933 was driven by economic necessity. It aimed to restore tax revenues lost during Prohibition and create jobs, particularly in the struggling economy of the Great Depression. The act was seen as a step towards economic recovery.

What is the significance of the Twenty-first Amendment being the only amendment to repeal another?

The Twenty-first Amendment is unique in U.S. constitutional history because it is the only amendment that was passed specifically to repeal a previous amendment – the Eighteenth Amendment, which had established national Prohibition. This highlights the shift in public and political opinion regarding the effectiveness and desirability of the alcohol ban.

What is the current legal status of alcohol sales in "dry counties" or municipalities in the United States?

Even after the repeal of national Prohibition, many "dry counties" and municipalities across the United States continue to restrict or prohibit the sale of alcohol. This demonstrates that state and local control over alcohol regulation, enabled by the Twenty-first Amendment, persists in various forms.

What was the impact of Prohibition on the U.S. federal state and the penal system?

Prohibition contributed to the expansion of the federal state's powers and the development of the "penal state." This included increased federal law enforcement capabilities, greater use of surveillance technologies like wiretapping, and a rise in federal prison populations related to alcohol offenses.

How did Prohibition disproportionately affect certain demographic groups?

According to historians, Prohibition had a disproportionately adverse effect on African Americans, immigrants, and poor whites. Law enforcement often targeted these communities more rigorously for alcohol-related violations, reflecting underlying social and political tensions of the era.

What was the estimated annual gain to the U.S. economy predicted by Irving Fisher due to Prohibition?

Irving Fisher, an economics professor at Yale and a proponent of Prohibition, estimated that the policy would yield annual gains of $6 billion to the United States. While his research methods have been questioned, this figure was widely cited as an economic justification for Prohibition.

What was the "Blue Monday" phenomenon related to Prohibition?

"Blue Monday" referred to the hangover workers experienced after weekend binge drinking, which resulted in Mondays being unproductive days. Irving Fisher used this concept to argue for Prohibition's economic benefits by suggesting it would improve worker productivity.

What was the general sentiment of economists regarding Prohibition in the early 20th century?

Most economists in the early 20th century supported the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment, believing Prohibition would have positive economic and social outcomes. Figures like Irving Fisher actively promoted the economic case for the alcohol ban.

How did the Prohibition era influence the development of the jazz music scene?

The Prohibition era significantly influenced the jazz scene by making speakeasies popular venues for musicians. The music's association with the clandestine, lively atmosphere of these establishments, coupled with the dispersal of jazz musicians due to the Great Depression, contributed to the genre's widespread popularity and stylistic evolution in cities like Chicago and New York.

What was the "demon rum" concept in the context of the temperance movement?

"Demon rum" was a metaphorical term used by temperance advocates to personify alcohol as an evil force responsible for societal ills. This imagery was employed to evoke strong emotional responses and persuade people to abstain from alcohol, framing the temperance movement as a moral crusade against this "demon."

What was the "bootleggers and Baptists" theory in relation to Prohibition?

The "bootleggers and Baptists" theory, often used in policy analysis, describes how seemingly opposing groups can form coalitions to support a particular policy. In the context of Prohibition, "bootleggers" (those profiting from illegal alcohol) and "Baptists" (religious groups advocating for temperance) both supported the ban, albeit for vastly different reasons.

What was the primary reason cited for the repeal of Prohibition?

The primary reasons cited for the repeal of Prohibition included the widespread failure to enforce the law, the rise of organized crime, the loss of tax revenue during the Great Depression, and a general decline in public support. The desire to restore personal liberty and boost the economy also played significant roles.

How did the Prohibition era affect the brewing industry's scale of operations?

Prohibition essentially reversed the industrialization of the alcohol beverage industry. Large-scale producers were shut down, and the efficient mass production and retailing of alcoholic beverages were replaced by smaller, often illegal, operations, leading to an economic downturn for the industry.

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A Nation Goes Dry

The Era Defined

The Prohibition era, spanning from 1920 to 1933, marked a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States. This period was driven by a complex interplay of social reform movements, religious convictions, and political maneuvering.

Legislative Foundation

Formalized by the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1919, and enforced by the Volstead Act, Prohibition aimed to address societal ills attributed to alcohol, such as alcoholism, domestic violence, and political corruption linked to saloons.

Shifting Tides

Initially supported by a broad coalition, including progressive reformers and various Protestant denominations, Prohibition faced increasing opposition by the late 1920s. Critics cited the erosion of tax revenues, the rise of organized crime, and the infringement on personal liberties.

Roots of the Movement

Religious and Moral Imperatives

The temperance movement, gaining momentum in the 19th century, was largely fueled by pietistic Protestant denominations. They viewed alcohol consumption as a moral failing and a primary cause of social problems, advocating for abstinence and legislative prohibition.

Women's Influence

Organizations like the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) played a pivotal role. Leveraging their influence in social reform and advocating for domestic stability, they championed Prohibition as a means to protect families and uphold public morality.

Political Mobilization

Groups such as the Anti-Saloon League strategically mobilized political support, making Prohibition a key issue in state and federal elections. Their efforts, combined with wartime sentiments against German brewing interests, helped secure the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment.

The Road to National Prohibition

State-Level Bans and Early Efforts

Prior to national Prohibition, numerous states and local jurisdictions enacted their own bans on alcohol. Kansas, for instance, adopted statewide prohibition in its constitution in 1881, demonstrating the growing momentum of the dry movement.

Constitutional Amendment

The Eighteenth Amendment, proposing a federal ban on alcohol, was passed by Congress in December 1917 and ratified by the necessary number of states by January 1919. This amendment established the legal framework for national Prohibition.

The Volstead Act

Enacted in October 1919 over President Woodrow Wilson's veto, the Volstead Act provided the detailed definitions and penalties necessary for enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment. It specified what constituted an "intoxicating liquor" and outlined enforcement mechanisms.

Enforcing the Unenforceable

Challenges and Limitations

Enforcement of Prohibition proved exceedingly difficult due to vast geographical challenges, limited federal resources, and widespread public defiance. Agencies like the Bureau of Prohibition, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the IRS were tasked with enforcement, often struggling against organized criminal networks.

Bootlegging and Speakeasies

The ban spurred the growth of illegal alcohol production and distribution, known as bootlegging. Speakeasies, clandestine establishments selling alcohol, proliferated, particularly in urban centers, becoming symbols of the era's defiance of the law.

The Perils of Poisoned Alcohol

In an attempt to deter consumption, the government mandated the denaturation of industrial alcohol with poisonous additives. This measure tragically led to thousands of deaths and illnesses among those who consumed the tainted beverages, highlighting the dangerous unintended consequences of enforcement policies.

The End of an Experiment

Growing Discontent

By the early 1930s, public opinion had largely turned against Prohibition. The perceived failure to curb alcohol consumption, coupled with the rise of organized crime and the economic pressures of the Great Depression, fueled calls for repeal.

The Twenty-first Amendment

The Cullen–Harrison Act in March 1933 legalized low-alcohol beer and wine, signaling a shift. The Twenty-first Amendment, ratified in December 1933, formally repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, ending national Prohibition and returning alcohol regulation to the states.

Public Reaction

The repeal was met with widespread celebration, as many Americans welcomed the return of legal alcohol and the potential for renewed tax revenues. However, the legacy of Prohibition continued to shape American society and policy.

Societal Impacts

Alcohol Consumption and Health

While initial studies suggested a decline in alcohol consumption and related health issues like cirrhosis and alcoholic psychosis, these benefits diminished as illegal markets flourished. Post-Prohibition consumption levels eventually surpassed pre-Prohibition rates.

Economic Consequences

Prohibition resulted in significant losses of tax revenue for federal, state, and local governments. Conversely, the illegal alcohol trade generated billions of dollars for criminal organizations, while legitimate industries suffered closures.

Crime and Law Enforcement

The criminalization of alcohol fueled the rise of organized crime, particularly in urban areas. While some studies suggest crime rates did not dramatically increase solely due to Prohibition, the era undeniably empowered criminal syndicates and strained law enforcement resources.

Medicinal Alcohol

Prescriptions for Spirits

During Prohibition, physicians were permitted to prescribe alcohol for medicinal purposes. This loophole led to millions of prescriptions being written annually, generating substantial income for doctors and pharmacies, and becoming a notable aspect of the era's economy.

Regulatory Loopholes

The Volstead Act allowed for the home production of wine and cider for personal use, and the sale of sacramental wine for religious purposes. These provisions created legal avenues for obtaining alcohol, albeit under strict conditions.

The Rise of Organized Crime

Fueling Criminal Enterprises

Prohibition provided a lucrative financial foundation for organized crime. Groups like the Chicago Outfit leveraged the demand for illegal alcohol, engaging in bootlegging, speakeasy operations, and associated violent activities, significantly expanding their influence.

Crime Statistics Debate

The precise impact of Prohibition on overall crime rates remains debated among historians. While some argue it led to a surge in lawlessness, others contend that crime statistics were often unreliable or influenced by other societal factors like urbanization.

Enforcement vs. Crime

Despite significant government efforts and expenditures on enforcement, the vastness of the black market and the profitability of illegal alcohol production often outpaced law enforcement capabilities, creating a persistent challenge.

Economic Repercussions

Lost Revenue and Industry Collapse

The closure of legal breweries, distilleries, and saloons resulted in substantial job losses and a significant reduction in tax revenue. The federal government lost an estimated $226 million annually in alcohol taxes alone.

The Black Market Economy

An estimated $3 billion per year flowed into the untaxed black market, primarily benefiting criminal organizations. This illicit economy operated outside the formal regulatory and tax structures.

Post-Repeal Recovery

The repeal of Prohibition led to the revitalization of the alcohol industry, creating jobs and generating much-needed tax revenue. The legalization of 3.2% beer in 1933, for example, quickly spurred employment in the brewing sector.

Christian Perspectives

Evangelical Support

Many evangelical Protestant denominations, particularly in the Southern United States, strongly supported Prohibition, viewing alcohol consumption as sinful and a root cause of societal ills. They actively campaigned for its legislative enactment.

Mainline Opposition

Conversely, mainline Protestant denominations, along with Catholic and Lutheran communities, often opposed Prohibition. They argued against government overreach in defining morality and criminalizing practices, such as the liturgical use of wine.

Alliances and Social Gospel

The temperance movement often allied with other progressive causes, including women's suffrage. Some activists viewed Prohibition as a victory for social gospel principles, aiming to combat poverty and improve public welfare.

Alcohol Production and Innovation

Grape Cultivation and Wine Bricks

The Volstead Act permitted home production of wine and cider. This led to a surge in grape cultivation, with farmers selling concentrated grape products, often labeled with warnings about fermentation, to circumvent the ban.

Distilled Spirits and Bootlegging

The production of distilled spirits became a primary focus for bootleggers due to their higher alcohol content and ease of dilution. This illicit industry often involved dangerous practices, including the use of denatured industrial alcohol.

Impact on Brewing

Prohibition severely impacted the burgeoning American wine industry and forced breweries to reformulate their products to lower alcohol content or cease operations. Many brewers either emigrated or left the industry entirely.

Patterns of Consumption

Public Compliance and Defiance

While a significant portion of the population adhered to Prohibition, widespread defiance was evident through the proliferation of speakeasies and home brewing. The effectiveness of the ban varied considerably across regions and demographics.

Home Consumption

The allowance for home production of wine and cider, along with stockpiling before the ban, meant that consumption did not cease entirely. The demand for alcohol persisted, driving the growth of the illegal market.

Changing Social Norms

Prohibition altered social drinking habits, with speakeasies becoming more integrated spaces that included women, unlike the predominantly male saloons of the pre-Prohibition era. This shift influenced marketing strategies for alcoholic beverages post-repeal.

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References

Boyd Vincent, "Why the Episcopal Church Does Not Identify Herself Openly With Prohibition", The Church Messenger, December 1915, reprinted in The Mixer and Server, Volume 25, No. 2, pp. 25â27 (February 15, 1916).

E.g., Donald T. Critchlow and Philip R. VanderMeer, The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Political and Legal History, Oxford University Press, 2012; Volume 1, pp. 47â51, 154.

Shaw, Elton Raymond and Wheeler, Wayne Bidwell. Prohibition: Coming or Going? Berwyn, Illinois: Shaw Publishing Co., 1924.

Coats, A. W. 1987. "Simon Newton Patten" in The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, edited by John Eatwell, Murray Milgate, and Peter Newman, 3: 818â819. London: Macmillan.

Fisher, Irving, et al. 1927. "The Economics of Prohibition". American Economic Review: Supplement 17 (March): 5â10.

E.g., "The Economics of War Prohibition", pp. 143â144 in: Survey Associates, Inc., The Survey, Volume 38, AprilâSeptember 1917.

-------. "Roper Asks Clergy to Aid in Work of Dry Enforcement," The Evening Public Ledger (Philadelphia, PA), p. 1, Image 1, col. 1, January 17, 1920

Lisa McGirr, The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State (2015) pp. 231â256.

Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. January 7, 1931

Mar Murphy, "Bootlegging Mothers and Drinking Daughters: Gender and Prohibition in Butte Montana." American Quarterly, Vol 46, No 2, p. 177, 1994.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Prohibition in the United States Wikipedia page

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The Dry Decade

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A Nation Goes Dry 🏛️

🚫 The Era Defined

📜 Legislative Foundation

📈 Shifting Tides

Roots of the Movement 🌱

✝️ Religious and Moral Imperatives

👩‍👧‍👦 Women's Influence

🏛️ Political Mobilization

The Road to National Prohibition 🛤️

⚖️ State-Level Bans and Early Efforts

🇺🇸 Constitutional Amendment

📜 The Volstead Act

Enforcing the Unenforceable 🚨

🕵️ Challenges and Limitations

🍻 Bootlegging and Speakeasies

☠️ The Perils of Poisoned Alcohol

The End of an Experiment 🍾

📉 Growing Discontent

🇺🇸 The Twenty-first Amendment

🎉 Public Reaction

Societal Impacts 📊

📉 Alcohol Consumption and Health

💰 Economic Consequences

⚖️ Crime and Law Enforcement

Medicinal Alcohol 💉

💊 Prescriptions for Spirits

📜 Regulatory Loopholes

The Rise of Organized Crime 🔫

💰 Fueling Criminal Enterprises

📈 Crime Statistics Debate

🏃 Enforcement vs. Crime

Economic Repercussions 💸

📉 Lost Revenue and Industry Collapse

📈 The Black Market Economy

💼 Post-Repeal Recovery

Christian Perspectives ✝️

⛪ Evangelical Support

⚖️ Mainline Opposition

🤝 Alliances and Social Gospel

Alcohol Production and Innovation 🏭

🍇 Grape Cultivation and Wine Bricks

🥃 Distilled Spirits and Bootlegging

🍺 Impact on Brewing

Patterns of Consumption 🥂

🗣️ Public Compliance and Defiance

🏠 Home Consumption

👩‍💼 Changing Social Norms

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

A Nation Goes Dry

The Era Defined

Legislative Foundation

Shifting Tides

Roots of the Movement

Religious and Moral Imperatives

Women's Influence

Political Mobilization

The Road to National Prohibition

State-Level Bans and Early Efforts

Constitutional Amendment

The Volstead Act

Enforcing the Unenforceable

Challenges and Limitations

Bootlegging and Speakeasies

The Perils of Poisoned Alcohol

The End of an Experiment

Growing Discontent

The Twenty-first Amendment

Public Reaction

Societal Impacts

Alcohol Consumption and Health

Economic Consequences

Crime and Law Enforcement

Medicinal Alcohol

Prescriptions for Spirits

Regulatory Loopholes

The Rise of Organized Crime

Fueling Criminal Enterprises

Crime Statistics Debate

Enforcement vs. Crime

Economic Repercussions

Lost Revenue and Industry Collapse

The Black Market Economy

Post-Repeal Recovery

Christian Perspectives

Evangelical Support

Mainline Opposition

Alliances and Social Gospel

Alcohol Production and Innovation

Grape Cultivation and Wine Bricks

Distilled Spirits and Bootlegging

Impact on Brewing

Patterns of Consumption

Public Compliance and Defiance

Home Consumption

Changing Social Norms

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice