What is the significance of Roman temples in Roman culture and architecture?

Roman temples were among the most important buildings in Roman culture and some of the richest in Roman architecture. Today, they are considered the most obvious symbol of Roman architecture, although few survive in a complete state.

What role did Roman temples play in ancient Roman religion?

The construction and maintenance of Roman temples were a major part of ancient Roman religion. Nearly every town of importance had at least one main temple and smaller shrines, reflecting their central role in religious life.

Where did most public religious ceremonies and sacrifices take place in relation to the Roman temple building?

Most public religious ceremonies and sacrifices were performed outdoors, not within the temple building itself. Sacrifices, primarily of animals, occurred at an open-air altar, often located on the podium extensions near the steps, with worshippers gathered in the temple precinct.

What was the most common architectural plan for Roman temples?

The most common architectural plan featured a rectangular temple raised on a high podium. This design emphasized the front with a portico at the top of steps and a triangular pediment above columns, while the sides and rear were typically less decorated and lacked entrances.

What were the primary influences on the development of the Roman temple's architectural style?

The Roman form of temple developed initially from Etruscan temples, which were themselves influenced by Greek architecture. This was followed by subsequent, heavy direct influence from Greece, leading to a blend of Etruscan and Greek features.

How did the practices of foreign cults in Rome sometimes differ from traditional Roman religion?

As the Roman Empire expanded, exotic foreign cults gained followers. These cults often had very different practices, with some preferring underground places of worship, while others, like early Christians, worshipped in houses, contrasting with the public, outdoor nature of traditional Roman ceremonies.

What happened to many Roman temples after the triumph of Christianity, and why did this occur?

Many Roman temples were converted into Christian churches, and sometimes later into mosques, often a considerable time after Christianity's triumph under Constantine. The decline of Roman religion was gradual, and temples were not officially appropriated by the government until a decree by Emperor Honorius in 415 AD.

Which temple in Rome is a well-known but untypical example, and what are its distinguishing features?

The Pantheon in Rome is a well-known but highly untypical Roman temple. It is distinguished by its very large circular design and magnificent concrete roof, set behind a conventional portico front.

What is the origin of the English word 'temple', and how did its meaning differ from other Latin terms for sacred spaces?

The English word 'temple' derives from the Latin word 'templum,' which originally referred not to the building itself, but to a sacred space that was surveyed and plotted ritually. Other Latin words like 'sacellum,' 'aedes,' 'delubrum,' and 'fanum' were more commonly used to denote the physical temple or shrine building.

How did Roman temples typically differ from Greek models in terms of architectural emphasis and approachability?

Unlike Greek models that generally gave equal architectural treatment to all sides, Roman temples emphasized the front façade. The sides and rear walls might be largely undecorated, inaccessible by steps, and sometimes even backed onto other buildings, contrasting with the Greek approach where temples could be viewed and approached from all directions.

What architectural orders were most common in surviving Roman temples, and what orders were used for smaller temples?

Reflecting a Hellenistic trend, the Corinthian order and its variant, the Composite order, were most common in surviving Roman temples. For smaller temples, such as the one at Alcántara, a simpler Tuscan order could be employed.

How were inscriptions on the front of Roman temples typically presented, and what happened to them?

The front of Roman temples typically carried an inscription detailing the builder, cut into the stone with a 'V' section and filled with brightly colored paint, often scarlet or vermilion. In major imperial monuments, the letters were cast in lead, held by pegs, and sometimes gilded, though these have usually vanished over time.

What characterized the Romano-Celtic temple style, particularly in Roman Britain?

The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style, usually with minimal use of stone, found in the Western Empire and common in Roman Britain. These temples were typically square, often featuring an ambulatory, and frequently lacked distinct classical features, possibly showing continuity with pre-Roman Celtic temples.

What types of circular buildings did the Romans construct, and what were their functions?

The Romans built circular temples of various kinds, often influenced by Greek models like tholos shrines. Circular structures were also used for other functions, such as assembly halls.

What is a caesareum, and what was its significance in the Roman Empire?

A caesareum was a temple dedicated to the Imperial cult. These temples were widespread throughout the Roman Empire, often funded by the imperial government, and tended to replace state spending on temples to other gods, becoming the main or only large temple in new Roman towns in the provinces.

Where was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus located, and to which deities was it dedicated?

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was located on the Capitoline Hill in Rome. It was dedicated to the Capitoline Triad, which consisted of Jupiter and his companion deities, Juno and Minerva.

How many times was the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus destroyed and rebuilt, and what is its current state?

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was destroyed by fire three times and rapidly rebuilt in contemporary styles. After a sacking in 455 AD and extensive stone removal in the Renaissance, only foundations remain today, visible in the basement of the Capitoline Museums.

How has the Roman temple's emphasis on the front façade influenced later architectural styles like Neoclassical architecture?

The Roman adaptation of the Greek temple model, which placed main emphasis on the front façade, has generally been adopted in Neoclassical and other classically derived styles. This has led to the common use of temple fronts with columns and pediments for the main entrances of grand buildings, allowing for flexibility in design and purpose.

What are some examples of modern buildings that faithfully replicate the ancient rectangular Roman temple form?

Examples of modern buildings that adhere closely to the ancient rectangular temple form include La Madeleine in Paris (originally a 'Temple to the Glory of the Great Army'), the Virginia State Capitol as originally built, and Birmingham Town Hall.

What happened to many of the best-preserved Roman temples after their original use?

Most of the best-preserved Roman temples were converted into churches, and in some cases, later into mosques. This conversion often involved altering the interior to create a large single space by walling in porticos and removing original cella walls.

What is the state of preservation of the Pantheon in Rome, and why is it considered unique?

The Pantheon in Rome is the most impressive and complete Roman temple interior to survive. It is unique due to its massive circular design and magnificent concrete dome, a combination that has been widely copied by modern architects.

Describe the Temple of Portunus in Rome.

The Temple of Portunus, also known as the 'Temple of Fortuna Virilis,' is noted for its very complete Ionic exterior. It is located near Santa Maria in Cosmedin and the Temple of Romulus.

What is the condition of the Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, France?

The Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, France, has a largely complete exterior, making it a significant survival of Roman temple architecture outside of Italy.

What makes the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France, a notable example of Roman temple survival?

The Maison Carrée in Nîmes is considered one of the most complete survivals of Roman temples, offering a well-preserved example of an Augustan provincial temple dedicated to the Imperial cult.

What is the description of the Garni Temple in Armenia?

The Garni Temple in Armenia is a 1st-century structure that was reconstructed after an earthquake in 1679. It is described as the only extant Greco-Roman temple in Armenia and the former Soviet Union, often referred to as the 'easternmost building of the Graeco-Roman world'.

What was the original purpose of the Temple of Romulus in the Roman Forum, and when was it dedicated as a church?

The Temple of Romulus in the Roman Forum was originally built and dedicated by Emperor Maxentius to his son Valerius Romulus, who died in childhood and was deified. It was later dedicated as a church in 527 AD.

How did Roman architects adapt temple styles in regions like Egypt and the Near East?

Roman architects often incorporated elements that the local population expected in their sacred architecture when building temples in regions like Egypt and the Near East. This was particularly relevant where traditions of large stone temples had existed for millennia.

What were the primary architectural influences on Roman temples, and how did they blend?

Roman temples were primarily influenced by Etruscan architecture, which itself was influenced by Greek architecture. This led to Roman temples having distinctive features that combined both Etruscan and Greek elements.

What is the significance of the term 'templum' in Roman surveying and religious practice?

In Roman practice, a 'templum' was not the building itself but a sacred space that was ritually surveyed and plotted. This concept was fundamental to the orientation and consecration of religious sites.

How did the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus influence other early Roman temples?

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, despite debates about its exact size, had a significant and long-lasting influence on the design and construction of other early Roman temples.

What is the 'Imperial cult' that caesarea were devoted to?

The Imperial cult was the state-sponsored veneration of Roman emperors, both living and deceased. Caesarea served as temples dedicated to this cult, reinforcing the emperor's divine or semi-divine status and authority throughout the empire.

What architectural features distinguish the Pantheon from typical Roman temples?

The Pantheon is distinguished by its massive circular structure and its impressive concrete dome, which was a significant engineering feat. It also features a conventional portico front, creating a unique combination not usually seen in Roman temple design.

How did the conversion of Roman temples into churches affect their original architecture?

When Roman temples were converted into churches, the porticos were often walled in between the columns, and the original cella front and side walls were frequently removed to create a large, unified interior space suitable for Christian worship.

What is the 'Capitoline Triad' dedicated in the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus?

The Capitoline Triad consisted of the three principal deities of the Roman state religion: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. These deities were central to the official religious practices of Rome, with their main temple being the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.

What role did terracotta play in the decoration of early Roman temples?

In earlier examples of Roman temples, terracotta was used extensively for decorative elements along the rooflines and entablatures, such as antefixes. These colorful elements enlivened the buildings, though few complete examples have survived.

How did the design of the Temple of Venus at Baalbek differ from the Pantheon in its combination of portico and circular structure?

While both the Pantheon and the 'Temple of Venus' at Baalbek combined a portico with a circular structure, they did so in very different ways. At Baalbek, a wide portico with a broken pediment was matched by four other columns around the building, with a uniquely curved architrave, creating a distinct visual effect.

What is the significance of the 'Caesareum of Alexandria' in the context of imperial cult temples?

The Caesareum of Alexandria was one of the earliest and most prominent imperial cult temples. Originally begun by Cleopatra VII, it was later converted by Augustus for his own cult and eventually became a church in the 4th century, illustrating the evolution of religious structures in the Roman Empire.

What architectural features are characteristic of the Temple of Hercules Victor in Rome?

The Temple of Hercules Victor in Rome, possibly designed by a Greek architect, is an early circular temple that is largely complete. It features an unbroken colonnade encircling the building and a low, Greek-style podium.

How did Renaissance and later architects adapt the Roman temple front for non-religious buildings?

Renaissance and later architects harmoniously integrated high domes, towers, and spires above colonnaded temple portico fronts, something unusual for the Romans. This allowed the Roman temple front to be adapted for a wide variety of secular building purposes, such as palaces and government buildings.

What archetypal pattern for churches in Georgian architecture was set by St Martin-in-the-Fields in London?

The church of St Martin-in-the-Fields in London, designed by James Gibbs, set an archetypal pattern for Georgian churches by boldly adding a large steeple atop a tower to a classical temple façade. This design became widely copied, influencing church architecture in Britain and its colonies.

What were the typical materials used for the construction of Roman temples?

Roman temples were typically constructed using stone, with elements like the podium, walls, columns, and entablatures made from various types of stone. Terracotta was also used for decorative elements in earlier periods, and concrete was famously employed in structures like the Pantheon.

What does the term 'aedes' refer to in the context of Roman religious buildings?

In the context of Roman religious buildings, 'aedes' was one of the more common Latin words used to refer to a temple or shrine, alongside 'sacellum,' 'delubrum,' and 'fanum'.

How did the Roman temple's podium and steps differ from Greek temples?

Roman temples were typically raised on a high podium with a significant number of steps, often twelve or more, compared to the three steps typical of Greek temples. These steps were usually located only at the front of the building.

What is the significance of the 'Temple of Bacchus' at Baalbek, Lebanon?

The Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon, is a famous and largely preserved structure, noted for its exotic 'Baroque' style and its status as a pilgrimage destination. It is one of the most complete Roman temple interiors to survive.

What is the 'Capitolium' in Roman architecture?

A 'capitolium' was a temple dedicated to the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva), with the most famous example being the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in Rome. These temples held a central position in the official religion of Rome.

How did the Roman temple's design accommodate public ceremonies?

Roman temples were designed to accommodate public ceremonies primarily taking place outside. The sacrificial altar was located outside, often on the podium, allowing crowds to gather in the temple precinct while priests performed rituals at the front, near the portico.

What is the 'templum' in Roman religious architecture, as distinct from the building itself?

The Latin term 'templum' originally denoted a sacred space that was ritually surveyed and plotted, rather than the physical building. This concept of a consecrated area was fundamental to Roman religious architecture.

What architectural feature of the Pantheon has been widely copied by modern architects?

The Pantheon's large circular domed cella, combined with its conventional portico front, has been a significant inspiration and has been copied numerous times by modern architects in various building types.

What were the common decorative elements on the rooflines and entablatures of earlier Roman temples?

Earlier Roman temples often featured extensive painted statuary on their rooflines and elaborate revetments and antefixes, typically made of colorful terracotta, which enlivened the entablature.

How did the Roman temple's side and rear walls typically differ from Greek temples?

Unlike Greek temples, which were designed to be viewed from all sides, the side and rear walls of Roman temples were often largely undecorated. They might also be inaccessible by steps or even back onto other buildings, emphasizing the frontal aspect of the structure.

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Definition & Significance

Sacred Architecture

Ancient Roman temples were foundational structures within Roman culture and represented some of the most significant achievements in Roman architecture. They remain a primary symbol of Roman architectural prowess. The construction and upkeep of these edifices were central to Roman religious practices, with virtually every significant town featuring at least one principal temple alongside numerous smaller shrines.

Cultural Importance

The primary chamber, known as the cella, housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was consecrated. This space often included a table for supplementary offerings or libations and a small altar for incense. Typically, the cella was adjoined by a rear room for temple attendants to store ritual equipment and offerings. Public ceremonies, however, predominantly occurred outdoors within the temple precinct, near the sacrificial altar, often on the portico.

Architectural Legacy

While few Roman temples survive in their complete form, their influence is undeniable. Many were later converted into Christian churches, and subsequently, some into mosques. This transformation, occurring long after the ascendancy of Christianity, preserved many structures that might otherwise have been lost. The enduring presence of these buildings continues to shape our understanding of classical architecture.

Terminology: Defining Sacred Space

Latin Roots

The English term "temple" originates from the Latin word templum. Historically, templum referred not to the physical building itself, but to a sacred space that had been ritually surveyed and demarcated. The Roman architect Vitruvius consistently used templum in this sense, referring to the sacred precinct rather than the structure. More common Latin terms for the building itself included sacellum (a small shrine), aedes, delubrum, and fanum.

Distinguishing Usage

In architectural discourse, the term "temple" can refer to any of these structures. However, it is crucial to distinguish between the building and the sacred precinct. While this article uses "temple" to denote the edifice, the Latin templum specifically denotes the consecrated ground. This distinction highlights the Roman emphasis on the ritualistic and spatial aspects of religious sites.

Architectural Principles

Etruscan and Greek Foundations

The architectural blueprint for Roman temples was significantly shaped by Etruscan precedents, which themselves were influenced by Greek models. This synthesis resulted in distinctive structures that blended Etruscan emphasis on the facade with Greek classical and Hellenistic styles. Early Roman temples often featured vibrant terracotta decorations on their rooflines and entablatures, a characteristic inherited from Etruscan traditions.

Emphasis on the Facade

Unlike the Greek approach, which typically afforded equal architectural treatment to all sides of a temple, Roman temples concentrated their design emphasis on the front. This typically involved a high podium accessed by broad steps, leading to a portico supported by columns. The side and rear walls often received less architectural attention, sometimes remaining undecorated or integrated into adjacent structures. This created a distinct visual hierarchy, directing the worshiper's experience towards the main entrance.

Classical Orders and Proportions

Roman temples closely followed Greek classical orders, particularly the Corinthian and its variant, the Composite order, in their facades. While Vitruvius provided guidelines for proportions, actual Roman practice exhibited considerable variability, always striving for balance and harmony. For smaller temples, simpler orders like the Tuscan were also employed. The inscriptions detailing the temple's patrons, often gilded or painted, were a prominent feature of the facade.

Circular and Unique Plans

Circular Temples

Circular temple designs, influenced by Greek tholos structures, were also prevalent in Roman architecture. Notable examples include temples dedicated to the goddess Vesta, often small and featuring an unbroken colonnade encircling the building atop a low podium. These designs, exemplified by surviving structures in Rome and Tivoli, offered a different spatial experience compared to the typical rectangular temple.

Notable Exceptions

The Pantheon in Rome stands as a unique example, combining a conventional portico facade with a massive, circular domed cella. This design, though singular in Roman architecture, has been widely emulated in subsequent periods. Other circular temples, such as the so-called "Temple of Venus" at Baalbek, showcase innovative ways of integrating porticoes with circular structures, demonstrating Roman architectural adaptability.

Hillside Sanctuaries

In complexes like the sanctuary at Praeneste, Roman architecture integrated temples within larger hillside structures. Visitors ascended through multiple levels of grand buildings before reaching the primary sanctuary, often a smaller circular building. This approach highlights the Roman ability to harmonize religious architecture with the natural landscape and create immersive pilgrimage experiences.

Temples of Imperial Power

The Caesareum

A caesareum was a temple specifically dedicated to the Imperial cult, honoring Roman emperors. These structures were distributed throughout the Empire and often served as focal points in newly established Roman towns, frequently replacing temples dedicated to other deities. They typically adopted conventional Roman architectural styles, regardless of local traditions.

Provincial Examples

Prominent caesarea were found in cities like Alexandria, initially conceived for Julius Caesar and later rededicated to Augustus. In provincial centers such as Évora, Vienne, and Nîmes, imperial temples were integral to the Romanization process, often centrally located within the forum, facing the basilica. These temples underscored the state's religious and political authority.

Imperial Cult in Rome

Within Rome itself, large temples were dedicated to individual emperors. The construction of new imperial temples largely ceased after Marcus Aurelius due to economic constraints. However, structures like the Temple of Romulus on the Roman Forum, built by Emperor Maxentius, demonstrate the continued, albeit altered, practice of imperial veneration into the later Empire.

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

Center of Roman Religion

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, situated on the Capitoline Hill, was arguably the most significant temple in Rome. Dedicated to the Capitoline Triad—Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva—it held a preeminent position in the state religion. Its influence on early Roman temple design was profound and long-lasting, despite being destroyed and rebuilt multiple times.

Cycles of Destruction and Rebirth

The temple experienced several destructions by fire, necessitating rapid rebuilding in contemporary architectural styles. The initial structure, traditionally dedicated in 509 BC, was exceptionally large for its time. Subsequent rebuilds incorporated evolving architectural trends, reflecting the changing tastes and technological capabilities of different eras. The final remnants are now visible in the foundations beneath the Capitoline Museums.

Etruscan Craftsmanship

The construction of the first temple involved Etruscan specialists, particularly for the creation and decoration of the extensive terracotta elements of the entablature and roofline. Later rebuilds saw the engagement of Greek artisans, indicating a shift towards Hellenistic influence in Roman temple construction. These collaborations underscore the cross-cultural exchange inherent in Roman architectural development.

Enduring Architectural Influence

Neoclassical Adaptations

The Roman temple's emphasis on a distinct, often colonnaded, facade has been widely adopted in Neoclassical and subsequent classically derived architectural styles. This flexible design principle allows temple fronts to serve as entrances for buildings of various functions, from palaces to public institutions, retaining the essential form while adapting to new contexts.

Global Reach

The Roman temple front's influence extends globally, appearing in significant structures worldwide, including the White House, Buckingham Palace, and St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. In more recent times, this classical motif has seen a resurgence in architectural design in China, demonstrating its persistent appeal across cultures and eras.

Post-Roman Innovations

While Roman temples themselves rarely featured domes or spires, Renaissance and later architects integrated these elements atop temple-like porticoes. This fusion created new architectural typologies, particularly for churches. The Roman temple front, though often stripped of its original polychromy and elaborate roofline sculpture, remains a recognizable and influential element in Western architectural tradition.

Substantial Surviving Examples

Temples in Rome

Rome itself boasts several remarkably preserved Roman temples. The Pantheon, though unique in its circular plan and dome, serves as a primary model for classical temple fronts. Other significant survivals include the largely complete Temple of Hercules Victor, the Ionic exterior of the Temple of Portunus, and the circular exterior of the Temple of Romulus in the Roman Forum. The Temple of Hadrian, incorporated into a later building, showcases a striking wall with eleven columns.

Across the Empire

Beyond Rome, numerous well-preserved examples exist. The Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France, is celebrated as one of the most complete survivals. In Croatia, the Temple of Jupiter in Diocletian's Palace at Split is a small but exceptionally intact structure. Spain offers the Temple of Alcántara, a tiny yet complete temple, and the Temple of Córdoba, notable for its base and columns. The Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon, is a remarkably preserved pilgrimage site with an intact interior.

Conversions and Reconstructions

Many surviving temples owe their preservation to conversion into churches or mosques. This often involved enclosing the original porticoes and modifying the interior spaces. In other instances, temples were rediscovered during urban development or reconstruction, as seen with the Temple of Vic in Spain. The reuse of building materials means that often only the podium and some columns remain, offering fragmented but powerful glimpses into the past.

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References

16 in a reconstruction drawing by G. Stephens, p. 38 in The Acropolis: Monuments and Museum, by G. Papathanassopoulos, Krene Editions, 1977

Wheeler, 97â106, 105 quoted. Originally, the "uncomfortable" junction was screened by a wall and less apparent.

David M. Gwynn, "Archaeology and the 'Arian Controversy' in the Fourth Century," in Religious Diversity in Late Antiquity (Brill, 2010), p. 249.

Ab urbe condita, 2.8

Stamper, 33 and all Chapters 1 and 2. Stamper is a leading protagonist of a smaller size, rejecting the larger size proposed by the late Einar Gjerstad.

Summerson (1980), 28. The Virginia State Capitol is specifically based on the Maison carre, but in a cheaper Ionic rather than Corinthian.

Tacitus. Annales. II.49.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Roman temple Wikipedia page

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This content has been generated by an Artificial Intelligence, drawing upon scholarly data for informational and educational purposes. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and adherence to the source material, it may not encompass all nuances or the most current interpretations of the subject matter. The information provided is not intended as professional architectural or historical consultation.

This is not professional advice. The content herein is for academic enrichment and should not substitute consultation with qualified architectural historians, archaeologists, or preservation specialists for specific projects or research inquiries. Always verify information with primary sources and expert analysis.

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Echoes in Stone

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Definition & Significance 🏛️

🏛️ Sacred Architecture

✨ Cultural Importance

🌍 Architectural Legacy

Terminology: Defining Sacred Space 📜

🗣️ Latin Roots

⚖️ Distinguishing Usage

Architectural Principles 🏗️

🏛️ Etruscan and Greek Foundations

➡️ Emphasis on the Facade

📏 Classical Orders and Proportions

Circular and Unique Plans ⭕

🔄 Circular Temples

🏛️ Notable Exceptions

⛰️ Hillside Sanctuaries

Temples of Imperial Power 👑

⭐ The Caesareum

📍 Provincial Examples

🏛️ Imperial Cult in Rome

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ⚡

🌟 Center of Roman Religion

🔥 Cycles of Destruction and Rebirth

🏺 Etruscan Craftsmanship

Enduring Architectural Influence 💡

🏛️ Neoclassical Adaptations

🌍 Global Reach

🎨 Post-Roman Innovations

Substantial Surviving Examples 🧱

🇮🇹 Temples in Rome

🌍 Across the Empire

🔄 Conversions and Reconstructions

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Definition & Significance

Sacred Architecture

Cultural Importance

Architectural Legacy

Terminology: Defining Sacred Space

Latin Roots

Distinguishing Usage

Architectural Principles

Etruscan and Greek Foundations

Emphasis on the Facade

Classical Orders and Proportions

Circular and Unique Plans

Circular Temples

Notable Exceptions

Hillside Sanctuaries

Temples of Imperial Power

The Caesareum

Provincial Examples

Imperial Cult in Rome

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

Center of Roman Religion

Cycles of Destruction and Rebirth

Etruscan Craftsmanship

Enduring Architectural Influence

Neoclassical Adaptations

Global Reach

Post-Roman Innovations

Substantial Surviving Examples

Temples in Rome

Across the Empire

Conversions and Reconstructions

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice