What is Romanization or Latinization in a historical and cultural context?

Romanization or Latinization refers to various historical processes, including acculturation, integration, and assimilation, through which newly incorporated and peripheral populations were influenced by the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Essentially, it describes how Roman culture, language, and institutions spread and were adopted by other peoples.

How was the process of Romanization referred to during the Fascist period in Italian historiography?

During the Fascist period in traditional Italian historiography, the various processes of Romanization were referred to as the 'civilizing of barbarians.' This terminology reflected a specific political and ideological viewpoint of the time.

How did acculturation typically proceed during the Romanization process?

Acculturation during Romanization typically proceeded from the top down, meaning that the upper classes of conquered societies were the first to adopt Roman culture. The traditional ways of life tended to persist longer among peasants in outlying countryside and rural areas.

What significant role did hostages play in the Romanization of elite children?

Hostages played an important part in the Romanization process, as elite children from regions like Mauretania to Gaul were taken to be raised and educated in Rome. This practice ensured that future leaders in these regions would be familiar with and potentially sympathetic to Roman culture.

How do modern historians' views on Romanization differ from traditional Italian historiography?

While traditional Italian historiography confidently identified Romanization as a 'civilization of barbarians,' modern historians adopt a more nuanced view. They suggest that local elites often made peace with Rome to secure and reinforce their own positions and prestige, and they study personal and group values and identity construction, recognizing that transitions varied significantly across different provinces.

What was a primary characteristic of cultural Romanization related to urban development?

One primary characteristic of cultural Romanization was the creation of many hundreds of Roman *coloniae* (colonies) throughout the territories of the Roman Republic and Empire. These settlements were instrumental in spreading Roman influence.

How were Roman *coloniae* typically created until the time of Trajan?

Until the reign of Trajan, Roman *coloniae* were typically created by settling retired veteran soldiers, primarily from the Italian peninsula. These veterans were instrumental in promoting Roman customs, laws, and the use of Latin in the new settlements.

What functions did colonies serve within the Roman Empire, according to Livius?

According to Livius, colonies during the Roman Empire served as showcases of Roman culture and examples of the Roman way of life, demonstrating to the native provincial populations how they were expected to live. The promotion of a town to the status of 'Colonia civium Romanorum' also granted all its citizens full Roman rights and required the dedication of a temple to the Capitoline triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the principal deities worshipped on the Capitol in Rome.

Approximately how many Italians were estimated to live in the provinces at the beginning of the Roman Empire?

It has been estimated that at the beginning of the Roman Empire, approximately 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces. This significant population contributed to the spread of Roman culture and language.

Which prominent Roman figures were responsible for settling many veterans in colonies?

Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Augustus were prominent Roman figures responsible for settling many of their veterans in colonies, both in Italy and the provinces. This practice was a key method for establishing Roman presence and influence.

How many soldiers did Augustus claim to have settled in colonies during his reign, and where?

In his account of achievements, *Res Gestae Divi Augusti*, Augustus stated that he settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, followed by 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, and another 96,000 in 2 BCE. These settlements were a massive undertaking to integrate veterans and Romanize new territories.

Besides veteran service, what other method allowed for the granting of Roman citizenship, as exemplified by the Lex Calpurnia?

Besides veteran service, the Lex Calpurnia also allowed for Roman citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery. An example cited is the 1,000 *socii* (allies) from Camerinum after the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BCE, and the auxiliary troops (later Legio XXII Deiotariana) after the Battle of Zela, who received Roman citizenship for their valor.

By the time of Augustus, what was the primary ethnic composition of the Roman legions?

By the time of Augustus, the Roman legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins, Italics, and Cisalpine Gauls. This indicates a significant degree of integration and recruitment from various parts of Italy and nearby regions into the Roman military structure.

Did Romanization always lead to the extinction of native cultures and languages?

No, Romanization did not always result in the extinction of all aspects of native cultures, even when extensive acculturation occurred. Many non-Latin provincial languages survived the entire period, though they often sustained considerable Latin influence.

Which non-Latin provincial languages survived the Roman period while still being influenced by Latin?

Non-Latin provincial languages that survived the Roman period while sustaining considerable Latin influence include the ancestor languages of Welsh, Albanian, Basque, and Berber. These languages demonstrate the limits of complete linguistic assimilation.

How long is the Gaulish language thought to have survived in France, and what evidence supports this?

The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite significant Romanization of the local material culture. The last plausibly credible record of spoken Gaulish comes from Gregory of Tours, who wrote in the 6th century (c. 560–575) about a shrine in Auvergne called 'Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue' that was destroyed.

What were some of the effects of Gaulish coexisting with Latin on the development of Vulgar Latin dialects that became French?

Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that eventually developed into French. Its effects included loanwords, calques (such as the word 'oui' for 'yes'), sound changes, and influences on conjugation and word order. This demonstrates a linguistic blending rather than a complete replacement.

Is the very existence of Romanization a universally accepted concept among modern archaeologists?

No, the very existence of Romanization is a source of contention among modern archaeologists. This indicates that the process is complex and subject to varying interpretations and models of cultural change.

Who proposed one of the first and now considered 'traditional' approaches to Romanization, and what did it entail?

Francis Haverfield proposed one of the first approaches to Romanization, now considered 'traditional.' He viewed the process as beginning in post-conquest societies like Britain and Gaul, where direct Roman policy promoted an increase in the Roman population through veteran colonies. These colonies, speaking Latin and populated by Roman citizens, were assumed to have a Romanizing effect on native communities.

How has recent scholarship expanded upon the traditional understanding of Romanization?

Recent scholarship has moved beyond the traditional understanding of Romanization by providing alternate models that explore how native populations adopted Roman culture and questioned the extent to which it was accepted or resisted. This includes models like non-interventionist, discrepant identity, acculturation, and creolization.

Describe the 'non-interventionist' model of Romanization.

The 'non-interventionist' model suggests that native elites were encouraged to increase their social standing by associating with the powerful Roman conquerors, adopting Roman dress, language, housing, or food consumption. This association would have provided them with enhanced power, and a civil administration system was quickly imposed to solidify Roman rule's permanence.

Explain the 'discrepant identity' model regarding Romanization.

The 'discrepant identity' model posits that there was no uniform identity that could be accurately described as traditional Romanization. Instead, fundamental differences were visible within a province through economics, religion, and identity, indicating that not all provincials supported Rome, nor did all elites desire to emulate the Roman upper classes.

What does the 'acculturation' model suggest about the adoption of Roman culture, particularly concerning religious practices?

The 'acculturation' model suggests that aspects of both native and Roman cultures were joined together. This is evidenced by the Roman acceptance and adoption of non-Classical religious practices, such as the inclusion of deities like Isis, Epona, Britannia, and Dolichenus into the Roman pantheon. Acculturation is the process of cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture.

How does the 'creolization' model explain Romanization?

The 'creolization' model explains Romanization as a result of negotiation between different elements of non-egalitarian societies, leading to material culture that is ambiguous. This implies a dynamic and complex interaction where new cultural forms emerge from the blending of existing ones.

How did Roman names and the Latin language spread among conquered populations?

Roman names were adopted by some individuals, and the Latin language spread, particularly facilitated by the fact that many native cultures, such as the Gauls and Iberians, were primarily oral. Anyone who wished to interact with the Roman bureaucracy or market through writing had to do so in Latin.

How did Latin's influence compare to Greek in the eastern half of the Roman Empire?

In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, Latin had to compete with Greek, which largely maintained its position as the *lingua franca* (a common language used by people of different native languages) and even expanded into new areas. However, Latin did become prominent in certain areas, especially around new veteran colonies like Berytus.

How did Romanization affect local customary laws in the provinces?

During Romanization, local customary laws were supplanted in part by Roman law, which introduced its own institutions regarding property and inheritance. This brought a standardized legal framework across the empire.

What typically Roman institutions were adopted by the conquered populations?

Typically Roman institutions adopted by the conquered populations included public baths, the imperial cult (the worship of the Roman emperor as a deity), and gladiator fights. These institutions served as symbols of Roman power and culture, and their adoption helped integrate local populations into the Roman way of life.

What factors facilitated the Romanization process?

The Romanization process was facilitated by several factors, including the Indo-European origin of most of the native languages, the similarity of the gods in many ancient cultures, and pre-existing trade relations and contacts among Mediterranean seafaring cultures like the Phoenicians and Greeks. These commonalities made cultural exchange and adoption easier.

Where was Romanization largely more effective, and why?

Romanization was largely more effective in the western half of the empire, where native civilizations were generally weaker. In contrast, the Hellenized East, with its ancient civilizations like those of Egypt, Anatolia, the Balkans, Syria, and Palestine, effectively resisted all but the most superficial effects of Romanization.

How did the extent of Romanization in Britain compare to that in Gaul?

While Britain was certainly Romanized, its approximation to Roman culture appears to have been smaller than that of Gaul. This suggests varying degrees of cultural absorption across different provinces.

According to Dott. Bernward Tewes and Barbara Woitas, which regions were the most Romanized?

According to Dott. Bernward Tewes and Barbara Woitas of the computing center of the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, the most Romanized regions were Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, southern Germany, and Dalmatia. These areas show the deepest and most lasting Roman cultural influence.

How is the powerful cultural influence of Romanization evident in modern times?

The powerful cultural influence of Romanization is evident today in regions described as 'Latin countries' and 'Latin American countries.' This is most apparent in European countries where Romance languages are spoken (like Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian) and in former colonies that inherited these languages and other Roman influences.

What did Theodor Mommsen observe about cultural Romanization in relation to 'neolatin languages'?

Theodor Mommsen observed that cultural Romanization was more complete in those areas that developed a 'neolatin language,' such as Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian. This highlights the deep linguistic legacy of Romanization.

What led to the de-Romanization and re-Semiticization of the Levant and Mesopotamia?

The Levant and Mesopotamia experienced de-Romanization and re-Semiticization due to the Arab conquests by the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates, and later the Abbasid Caliphate, after centuries of Roman rule. These conquests reversed the Romanization and Hellenization of the native Semitic peoples.

What contributed to the de-Romanization of the Balkans?

Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe contributed to the de-Romanization of the Balkans. The rapid demographic spread of the Slavs was followed by population exchange, mixing, and a language shift towards Slavic languages, diminishing Roman influences.

Name two specific historical examples of Romanization mentioned in the text.

Two specific historical examples of Romanization mentioned in the text are the Romanization of Anatolia and the Romanization of Hispania. These are regions where Roman culture and institutions had a significant impact.

What does the image depicting the Roman Empire at its greatest extent illustrate?

The source material includes an image that visually represents the geographical reach of the Roman Empire at its largest territorial extent. This map helps to understand the vastness of the empire and the areas subject to Romanization.

What does the image showing Romance languages in Europe demonstrate?

The source material references an image that illustrates the distribution of Romance languages across Europe. This visual aid highlights the enduring linguistic legacy of Romanization in various European countries.

What are some key aspects of Roman heritage listed in the article?

Key aspects of Roman heritage listed in the article include the Latinization of names, the numerous cities founded by the Romans, the widespread adoption of the Latin script, and the ongoing historiography of Romanization itself. These elements demonstrate the lasting impact of Roman culture.

What other concepts are listed as being related to Romanization?

Other concepts listed as being related to Romanization include 'Romanitas' (the Roman way of life or identity), Roman citizenship, and Latin rights. These terms are integral to understanding the social and legal aspects of Roman influence and integration.

Romanization Cultural Wiki: Imperium's Embrace: The Cultural Dynamics of Romanization

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

When you are ready...
🎮 Play the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge Game🎮

What Is Romanization?

Defining the Process

Romanization, also known as Latinization, refers to the multifaceted historical processes of acculturation, integration, and assimilation experienced by newly incorporated and peripheral populations under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Historically, Italian historiography, particularly during the Fascist era, often characterized these processes as the "civilizing of barbarians." Modern scholarship, however, adopts a more nuanced perspective, recognizing the complex interplay of Roman influence and indigenous responses.

A Top-Down Transformation

The process of acculturation typically initiated from the upper echelons of society. Local elites were often the first to adopt Roman cultural practices, language, and institutions, finding that such alignment could secure their social standing and reinforce their prestige. Conversely, traditional customs and ways of life tended to persist longer among the peasantry and in more remote, rural areas. A significant aspect of this top-down approach involved the education of elite children from conquered territories, such as Mauretania and Gaul, who were taken to Rome to be raised and educated, thereby becoming conduits of Roman culture.

Modern Interpretations

Contemporary historians move beyond simplistic notions of "civilization," emphasizing the agency of local populations. They explore how indigenous elites strategically engaged with Roman culture to consolidate their own power. New research also delves into the construction of personal and group identities, a process akin to ethnogenesis, within the Roman provincial context. Scholars like Blagg and Millett highlight that even within a single Roman province, the dynamics of Romanization could vary significantly, cautioning against broad generalizations.

Mechanisms of Influence

The Coloniae System

A cornerstone of cultural Romanization was the extensive establishment of Roman *coloniae* (colonies) throughout the Republic and Empire. These settlements were primarily founded by retired veteran soldiers, predominantly from the Italian peninsula, who served as living examples and promoters of Roman customs, laws, and the Latin language. These colonies were not merely military outposts but vibrant showcases of the Roman way of life, intended to inspire and integrate the native populations into the imperial fabric.

It is estimated that approximately 400 towns across the Roman Empire achieved the rank of *colonia*. This status conferred full Roman citizenship upon all residents and typically involved the dedication of a temple to the Capitoline Triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, mirroring the venerated temple on the Capitol in Rome. These urban centers served as powerful symbols and practical hubs for the dissemination of Roman culture.

Demographic Shifts

The movement of Roman citizens, particularly veterans, into the provinces played a crucial role in Romanization. At the dawn of the Empire, an estimated 750,000 Italians resided in the provinces. Prominent figures such as Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Augustus strategically settled vast numbers of their veterans in colonies across Italy, Spain, and southern Gaul. For instance, Augustus alone settled over 300,000 soldiers in various colonies. Furthermore, the *Lex Calpurnia* allowed for the granting of Roman citizenship for distinguished bravery, extending Roman identity to deserving auxiliaries and allies, further integrating diverse populations into the Roman citizen body.

Language and Law

The Latin language became a primary vehicle for Romanization, especially in regions where native cultures were largely oral, such as Gaul and Iberia. Proficiency in Latin was essential for engaging with Roman bureaucracy and participating in the Roman market. While Latin exerted considerable influence, it did not universally extinguish indigenous languages. Languages like Welsh, Albanian, Basque, and Berber survived the entire imperial period, albeit with significant Latin loanwords and structural influences. Notably, Gaulish persisted in France until the 6th century, contributing loanwords, sound changes, and even grammatical influences to the developing Vulgar Latin dialects that would eventually form French. Concurrently, Roman law, with its established institutions regarding property and inheritance, gradually supplanted local customary laws, providing a unified legal framework across the Empire.

Theoretical Models

Archaeological Debates

The very concept and extent of Romanization remain a subject of ongoing debate among modern archaeologists. Early 20th-century scholars like Francis Haverfield proposed a "traditional" model, viewing Romanization as a direct, top-down policy implemented in post-conquest societies like Britain and Gaul. This model posited that veteran colonies, populated by Latin-speaking Roman citizens, would naturally exert a Romanizing effect on native communities. However, contemporary scholarship has introduced more nuanced models, challenging the uniformity and inevitability of this process.

Diverse Interpretations

Recent archaeological and historical research has offered alternative frameworks for understanding how native populations interacted with and adopted Roman culture. These models acknowledge the complexity of cultural change, recognizing that Romanization was not a monolithic process but a dynamic interaction shaped by local contexts and individual agency.

Non-interventionist Model: This perspective suggests that native elites were incentivized to adopt Roman cultural markers—such as dress, language, housing styles, and food consumption—to enhance their social standing and associate themselves with the powerful Roman conquerors. The swift imposition of a civil administration system further solidified the perception of permanent Roman rule.
Discrepant Identity Model: This model argues against a uniform "Romanization" of identity. It highlights fundamental differences within provinces, particularly in economic, religious, and identity spheres. Not all provincials embraced Roman ideals, and not all local elites aspired to emulate the Roman upper classes, indicating varying degrees of acceptance and resistance.
Acculturation Model: This approach emphasizes the blending of both native and Roman cultural elements. Evidence for this can be seen in the Roman acceptance and adoption of non-Classical religious practices, such as the inclusion of deities like Isis, Epona, Britannia, and Dolichenus into the Roman pantheon, demonstrating a reciprocal cultural exchange.
Creolization Model: This model posits that Romanization emerged from negotiations between different, often unequal, societal elements. Consequently, the material culture produced during this period can be ambiguous, reflecting a hybridity that is neither purely Roman nor purely indigenous, but a new, creolized form.

Enduring Legacy

Cultural & Linguistic Footprint

The impact of Romanization is profoundly evident in the adoption of Roman names and the widespread dissemination of the Latin language. This was particularly significant in cultures that were predominantly oral, as Latin became the essential language for engaging with Roman administration and commerce. While Latin became prominent, especially around new veteran colonies like Berytus, in the eastern half of the Empire, it contended with Koine Greek, which largely retained its status as the lingua franca and even expanded into new territories. Beyond language, typically Roman institutions such as public baths, the imperial cult, and even gladiator fights were adopted, fundamentally altering local social structures. Gradually, many conquered peoples began to perceive themselves as Romans, a process actively supported by both the Roman Republic and the Empire.

Geographic Impact

The effectiveness of Romanization varied geographically. It was largely more complete in the western half of the Empire, where native civilizations were often less entrenched or had weaker institutional structures. In contrast, the Hellenized East, with its ancient and robust civilizations like those of Egypt, Anatolia, the Balkans, Syria, and Palestine, largely resisted all but the most superficial Romanizing effects. When the Empire eventually divided, the East, characterized by its strong Greek culture and language, saw a further diminishment of Latin and other Roman influences, though its citizens continued to identify as Romans. The most thoroughly Romanized regions, as indicated by studies from institutions like the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, included Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, southern Germany, and Dalmatia. This enduring cultural influence is so profound that many of these regions and their former colonies are today described as "Latin countries" or "Latin American countries," speaking Romance languages—a direct testament to the Roman legacy, as noted by Theodor Mommsen.

De-Romanization

Reversals in the East

While Romanization left an indelible mark, certain regions experienced a reversal of these cultural processes. In the Levant and Mesopotamia, centuries of Roman and Hellenistic rule were significantly undone by the Arab conquests of the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates, continuing into the Abbasid Caliphate. These conquests led to a re-Semiticization of the native Semitic peoples, effectively reversing the Roman and Hellenistic cultural influences that had been established.

Balkan Transformations

Similarly, the Slavic migrations into Southeastern Europe played a crucial role in the de-Romanization of the Balkans. The rapid demographic expansion of the Slavs was accompanied by significant population exchanges, mixing, and a widespread language shift towards Slavic tongues. This process gradually eroded the Roman cultural and linguistic dominance that had characterized the region for centuries, leading to a distinct cultural landscape.

Teacher's Corner

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

Edit and Print Materials from this study in the wiki2web studio

Click here to open the "Romanization Cultural" Wiki2Web Studio curriculum kit

Use the free Wiki2web Studio to generate printable flashcards, worksheets, exams, and export your materials as a web page or an interactive game.

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Learn about romanization_cultural while playing the wiki2web Clarity Challenge game.

Unlock the mystery image and prove your knowledge by earning trophies. This simple game is addictively fun and is a great way to learn!

Play now

Explore More Topics

Discover other topics to study!

internal improvements

espionage act of 1917

References

The identification of countryfolk as pagani is discussed at paganism.

Leonard A. Curchin, The Romanization of Central Spain: complexity, diversity, and change in a Provincial Hintellrfreshsrland, 2004, p. 130.

Scheidel, "Demography", 49–50, 64, 64 n. 114, citing P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.âA.D. 14 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 263.

Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.

Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinÃ©raire linguistique Ã travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.

Mattingly, D. J., 2004, "Being Roman: Expressing Identity in a provincial setting", Journal of Roman Archaeology Vol. 17, pp 5â26

Millet, M., 1990, "Romanization: historical issues and archaeological interpretation", in Blagg, T. and Millett, M. (Eds.), The Early Roman Empire in the West, Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 35â44

Mattingly, D. J., 2004, "Being Roman: Expressing Identity in a provincial setting", Journal of Roman Archaeology Vol. 17, pp. 13

Webster, J., 1997 "Necessary Comparisons: A Post-Colonial Approach to Religious Syncretism in the Roman Provinces", World Archaeology Vol 28 No 3, pp. 324â338

Webster, J., 2001, "Creolizing the Roman Provinces", American Journal of Archaeology Vol 105 No. 2, pp. 209â225,

A full list of references for this article are available at the Romanization (cultural) Wikipedia page

Feedback & Support

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer

Important Notice

This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date.

This is not professional historical or cultural advice. The information provided on this website is not a substitute for scholarly research, academic consultation, or expert analysis in the fields of ancient history, archaeology, or cultural studies. Always refer to primary sources, peer-reviewed academic literature, and consult with qualified historians or archaeologists for specific research or understanding of historical phenomena. Never disregard established academic consensus or delay in seeking expert opinion because of something you have read on this website.

The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.

Imperium's Embrace

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What Is Romanization? 📜

🏛️ Defining the Process

👑 A Top-Down Transformation

🧐 Modern Interpretations

Mechanisms of Influence ⚙️

🏘️ The Coloniae System

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Demographic Shifts

🗣️⚖️ Language and Law

Theoretical Models 🧠

🔍 Archaeological Debates

📊 Diverse Interpretations

Enduring Legacy 🌍

📜 Cultural & Linguistic Footprint

🗺️ Geographic Impact

De-Romanization 📉

🕌 Reversals in the East

🏔️ Balkan Transformations

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

True or False? 🤔

❓ Test Your Knowledge! ❓

Gamer's Corner 🎮

Are you ready for the Wiki2Web Clarity Challenge?

Explore More Topics

📜 Discover other topics to study!

References

📜 References

Feedback & Support 👍

To report an issue with this page, or to find out ways to support the mission, please click here.

Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What Is Romanization?

Defining the Process

A Top-Down Transformation

Modern Interpretations

Mechanisms of Influence

The Coloniae System

Demographic Shifts

Language and Law

Theoretical Models

Archaeological Debates

Diverse Interpretations

Enduring Legacy

Cultural & Linguistic Footprint

Geographic Impact

De-Romanization

Reversals in the East

Balkan Transformations

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice