According to the World Bank, what types of institutions are encompassed by tertiary education?

The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools. These institutions provide education beyond the secondary level.

What is the primary focus of tertiary education as stated by UNESCO?

UNESCO states that tertiary education focuses on learning endeavors in specialized fields, encompassing both academic and higher vocational education.

Why is tertiary education considered increasingly important for the future of work?

The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report highlights that tertiary education is becoming more relevant for workers to compete in the labor market due to the increasing role of technology in value chains and the evolving nature of work.

What are considered the earliest known institutions of higher learning, and what did they contain?

The oldest known institutions of higher learning are credited to Dynastic Egypt, known as 'Pr-Anx' or 'houses of life'. These served as libraries and scriptoriums, holding works on various subjects and involved in training doctors.

How did ancient Greek philosophical schools influence later educational establishments?

Ancient Greek schools like Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum became models for other establishments, particularly in Alexandria under the Ptolemies, influencing the development of higher learning.

What were significant centers of higher learning in South Asia and China in ancient times?

In South Asia, the city of Taxila and later the Buddhist monastery of Nalanda attracted students and professors from distant regions. In China, the Han dynasty established the Grand School, Taixue, to train cadres for imperial administration by teaching the Five Confucean Classics.

Which university is recognized as the oldest continually operating higher educational institution globally?

The University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, is recognized by UNESCO and Guinness World Records as the oldest existing continually operating higher educational institution in the world.

What is the historical significance of the University of Bologna?

Founded in 1088, the University of Bologna in Italy is recognized as the world's oldest university in continuous operation and is notable as the first institution to use the term 'universitas' at its foundation.

How has participation in higher education changed since World War II?

Since World War II, participation in higher education has significantly increased in many developed and developing countries, shifting from an elite rate of up to 15% to mass rates of 16-50%, and in some cases towards open access where over half the relevant age group participates.

What are the economic benefits associated with higher education?

Higher education is important for national economies as an industry and a source of skilled personnel. Graduates typically command a wage premium and experience lower rates of unemployment compared to less educated workers.

What criticisms have universities faced regarding grade inflation in recent years?

Universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging grade inflation, with some commentators suggesting that institutions may relax grading practices to attract students and improve rankings.

What are the potential negative consequences of widening participation in higher education?

Widening participation can lead to an oversupply of graduates in certain fields relative to demand, potentially causing graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification, and educational inflation.

How do graduates' worldviews and social attitudes tend to differ from non-graduates?

Graduates are more likely to have different worldviews and moral values, often embracing cultural and ethnic diversity and expressing more positive views towards minority groups compared to non-graduates.

What are the typical policy preferences of graduates regarding international relations?

Graduates tend to favor openness in international relations, supporting policies such as free trade, open borders, and more liberal approaches to international migration.

What types of institutions provide higher education in the United States?

In the U.S., higher education is provided by a diverse range of institutions including universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, conservatories, institutes of technology, and vocational schools that award degrees.

What skills do employers seek in graduates beyond their specific field of study?

Employers look for graduates to possess critical thinking, analytical reasoning, teamwork, information literacy, ethical judgment, decision-making skills, strong communication abilities (speaking and writing), problem-solving skills, and a broad knowledge of liberal arts and sciences.

How has global tertiary education enrollment changed, and what is the gender comparison?

Globally, the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education increased from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017. Notably, the female enrollment ratio exceeded the male ratio by 4 percentage points during this period.

What is the range of tertiary gross enrollment ratios between low-income and high-income countries?

The tertiary gross enrollment ratio varies significantly, ranging from 9% in low-income countries to 77% in high-income countries, where it plateaued in the 2010s after rapid growth in the previous decade.

What does Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) commit countries to regarding tertiary education?

SDG 4 commits countries to providing lifelong learning opportunities for all, which explicitly includes ensuring access to tertiary education.

What does the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights state about higher education access?

Article 13 of the covenant declares that higher education should be made equally accessible to all, based on capacity, through appropriate means, particularly by progressively introducing free education.

What is the general trend in university completion rates for students with disabilities compared to those without?

University completion rates for students with disabilities are generally lower than those for students without disabilities.

What is grade inflation, and why is it a concern in tertiary education?

Grade inflation refers to the trend where higher grades are awarded more frequently over time, potentially devaluing academic achievement. It's a concern as it can compromise the integrity of the grading process and institutional rankings.

What is educational inflation, and what factors might contribute to it?

Educational inflation occurs when the supply of graduates in certain fields exceeds the demand for their skills. This can lead to issues like graduate unemployment, underemployment, and overqualification, potentially diminishing the perceived value of degrees.

What is the typical expenditure on tertiary education as a percentage of GDP for countries like Australia, Canada, and the United States?

In 2020, Australia spent 1.9% of its GDP on tertiary education, Canada spent 2.4%, and the United States spent 2.5%.

Which countries showed the highest tertiary education expenditure as a percentage of GDP in the provided 2020 data?

According to the table, the United States (2.5%), Norway (2.0%), and Australia (1.9%) had the highest tertiary education expenditures as a percentage of GDP among the listed countries.

What percentage of 25-64 year olds in Canada and the United States had attained at least a bachelor's degree by 2022?

By 2022, Canada led the G7 with over 56% of adults aged 25-64 having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree, while the United States had 50.0% attainment in the same age group for a bachelor's degree or equivalent.

What does the OECD report from 2014 suggest about the earnings of tertiary-educated individuals?

The 2014 OECD report indicated that tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers, highlighting a significant wage premium associated with higher education.

What are the different types of tertiary education providers in Australia?

In Australia, tertiary education options include universities, technical and further education (TAFE) institutions, and private universities.

What is the compulsory age range for education in Italy?

Education is compulsory in Italy for individuals between the ages of 6 and 16.

How many Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019?

In 2019, 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500, placing Italy third in Europe for the number of top-ranked institutions.

What are 'Superior Graduate Schools' in Italy, and what do they offer?

Superior Graduate Schools, also known as 'Scuola Superiore Universitaria' or 'Grandes Écoles', are institutions in Italy that offer officially recognized titles equivalent to doctorates, such as the 'Diploma di Perfezionamento' or 'Dottorato di Ricerca'.

What is the educational progression in France from early childhood to university?

In France, the educational path typically includes nursery school (école maternelle), elementary school (école primaire), middle school (collège), and high school (lycée), after which students may proceed to university.

How is education administered under devolution in the United Kingdom?

Under devolution in the UK, education is administered separately in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland, with each nation having its own system and terminology, though 'tertiary education' generally aligns with 'higher education' post-18 in England.

What is the stated ideal objective of higher education in Canada?

The ideal objective of Canadian higher education is to provide every Canadian with the opportunity to acquire skills and knowledge to realize their full potential, cultivate a world-class workforce, enhance employment rates, and safeguard national prosperity.

How is the higher education system in the United States characterized?

The U.S. higher education system is decentralized and regulated by individual states, featuring a diverse mix of privately governed and government-operated institutions, ranging from small secular colleges to large universities with religious affiliations.

What types of institutions are considered tertiary education in Nigeria?

In Nigeria, tertiary education includes studies at universities (both government and privately funded), monotechnics, polytechnics, and colleges of education.

What examinations are required for admission into tertiary institutions in Nigeria?

To gain admission into Nigerian tertiary institutions, students must typically pass the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) Entrance Examination and possess a Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) or General Certificate of Education (GCE).

What types of education are classified as tertiary in Japan?

According to Japan's Ministry of Education (MEXT) and UNESCO, tertiary education includes university programs (undergraduate, postgraduate, professional degrees), two-year colleges (Tanki Daigaku), colleges of technology, and specialized colleges.

What does 'tertiary education' or 'higher education' encompass in Hong Kong?

In Hong Kong, tertiary or higher education refers to any education beyond secondary school, including programs offered by universities, post-secondary colleges, statutory universities, and publicly funded institutions.

What are the main stages of formal education as outlined in the 'Stages of formal education' navbox?

The main stages of formal education include Early childhood education (Preschool, Kindergarten), Primary education (Primary school, Elementary school), Secondary education (Middle school, High school), and Tertiary education (Higher education, Vocational, Further/Continuing education).

What are some examples of higher education institutions listed in the 'School types' navbox?

Examples of higher education institutions listed include Universities, Colleges, Community Colleges, Liberal Arts Colleges, Research Universities, Seminaries, and Institutes of Technology.

Which regions are covered in the 'Higher education by region' navboxes?

The navboxes cover Higher education in Africa, the Americas (North, Central, Caribbean, South), Asia, Europe, and Oceania.

What is the significance of the University of Naples Federico II in terms of its founding?

The University of Naples Federico II, established in 1224, holds the distinction of being the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.

What does the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights state about the progression of education?

The covenant states that higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, based on capacity, through appropriate means, particularly by progressively introducing free education.

What is the role of accreditors in the U.S. higher education system?

Accreditors play a key role in the U.S. higher education system by ensuring that institutions meet minimum standards, contributing to the system's quality assurance.

What does the table on tertiary education attainment show for countries like Australia and Canada regarding bachelor's degrees?

The table indicates that 39.4% of adults in Australia aged 25-64 attained at least a bachelor's degree, while Canada reported 62.7% attainment for a bachelor's degree or higher.

What does the table on tertiary education attainment show for countries like Germany and the United Kingdom regarding bachelor's degrees?

The table shows that 31.9% of adults in Germany aged 25-64 attained at least a bachelor's degree, and the United Kingdom reported 42.3% attainment for a bachelor's degree or equivalent.

What is the general trend in university completion rates for students with disabilities compared to those without?

University completion rates for students with disabilities are generally lower than those for students without disabilities.

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Defining Tertiary Education

Post-Secondary Learning

Tertiary education, also known as higher education or post-secondary education, represents the educational level that follows the completion of secondary education. It is an optional stage of formal learning, encompassing institutions like universities, colleges, and polytechnics that offer formal degrees beyond secondary school.

Formal Classification

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) categorizes tertiary education. In its 2011 version, higher education at undergraduate, master's, and doctoral levels correspond to ISCED levels 6, 7, and 8, respectively. Non-degree tertiary education is classified under level 5, while further or continuing education is often considered level 4.

Historical Context

Historically, the term "higher education" was sometimes used to refer to secondary education in eras when few progressed beyond primary schooling. This linguistic evolution is the origin of terms like "high school" for institutions serving adolescents.

A Journey Through Time

Ancient Foundations

The earliest institutions of higher learning trace back to Dynastic Egypt with "houses of life" serving as libraries and scriptoriums. In the classical world, Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum in Greece set models for later establishments. South Asia saw centers like Taxila and Nalanda, while China's Han dynasty established the Taixue for training administrators.

Medieval Universities

The Byzantine Empire's Pandidakterion in 425 CE was an early innovation. In the Muslim world, Madrasahs evolved from mosque schools to higher learning centers. Western Europe saw the rise of the *Universitas Studiorum* from the 12th century, characterized by independent corporations of students and teachers. Institutions like the University of al-Qarawiyyin (Morocco) and the University of Bologna (Italy, founded 1088) are recognized as the world's oldest continuously operating higher education institutions.

Modern Expansion

Since World War II, tertiary education participation has dramatically increased globally, shifting from elite to mass and then to open access models. This expansion is vital for national economies, providing skilled personnel and contributing to economic growth, with graduates typically commanding higher wages and experiencing lower unemployment.

Contemporary Trends

The 21st century sees universities facing criticism for grade inflation and debates around widening participation's impact on graduate employment. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated discussions on the obsolescence of traditional models, while geopolitical funding influences on campuses remain a subject of scrutiny.

Global Enrollment & Access

Participation Growth

Globally, the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary education surged from 19% in 2000 to 38% in 2017. Notably, female enrollment has surpassed male enrollment by a significant margin in recent years.

Access Disparities

Enrollment ratios vary considerably by economic status, ranging from 9% in low-income countries to 77% in high-income nations. Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) emphasizes providing lifelong learning opportunities, including tertiary education for all.

Inclusive Education

International human rights instruments affirm the right to higher education. However, completion rates for students with disabilities remain notably lower compared to their non-disabled peers, highlighting ongoing challenges in achieving equitable access.

Societal & Economic Impact

Worldviews and Values

Tertiary education graduates tend to exhibit broader worldviews and moral values, often showing greater acceptance of cultural and ethnic diversity and more positive attitudes towards minority groups.

International Relations

Graduates are more inclined towards openness in international affairs, typically favoring policies such as free trade, open borders, and more liberal approaches to international migration.

Economic Advancement

Higher education significantly boosts human capital and fosters economic growth. The skills and knowledge acquired through tertiary studies are directly linked to increased earning potential and greater job security in the labor market.

Institutions of Learning

Diverse Offerings

Tertiary education is delivered through a variety of institutions, including universities, colleges, polytechnics, seminaries, conservatories, and institutes of technology. These institutions offer academic degrees and specialized training.

US System Structure

In the United States, the higher education system is decentralized, with state-level regulation and accreditation bodies ensuring quality. Institutions range from large public universities to small private colleges, some with religious affiliations, catering to diverse student needs.

Essential Skills

Beyond specific subject knowledge, employers highly value critical thinking, analytical reasoning, teamwork, information literacy, ethical judgment, decision-making, strong communication skills, and problem-solving abilities cultivated through tertiary education.

Data & Demographics

Educational Expenditure

Tertiary education expenditure as a percentage of GDP varies significantly by country. High-income nations generally invest more, reflecting the sector's importance to their economies. For example, in 2020, countries like Australia and the United States reported expenditures around 2.5% of GDP, while others like Luxembourg reported 0.5%.

Tertiary Education Expenditure as % of GDP (2020):

Country	Expenditure (% of GDP)
Australia	1.9
Austria	1.8
Belgium	1.6
Canada	2.4
Chile	2.7
Denmark	1.9
Finland	1.6
France	1.6
Germany	1.3
Iceland	1.4
Ireland	0.8
Israel	1.4
Italy	1.0
Japan	1.4
Netherlands	1.8
New Zealand	1.6
Norway	2.0
Sweden	1.6
United Kingdom	1.5
United States	2.5

Attainment Rates

Tertiary education attainment varies widely. For adults aged 25-64, countries like Canada, Japan, and New Zealand show high rates of overall tertiary attainment, often exceeding 50%. Specific degree attainment (Bachelor's, Master's, Doctoral) also shows distinct national patterns.

Ages 25-64: % attaining a tertiary degree course (Selected Countries):

Country	Any Tertiary	Bachelor's	Master's	Doctoral
Australia	51.5	39.4	10.9	1.9
Austria	35.6	20.4	14.8	1.2
Belgium	45.8	45.0	20.1	1.1
Canada	62.7
Chile	31.4
China	18.5
Czech Republic	26.7	26.5	19.7	0.7
Denmark	42.1	37.0	16.3	1.5
Estonia	42.1	36.5	21.8	0.8
Finland	42.6	35.1	17.3	1.3
France	41.6	27.2	15.2	1.0
Germany	32.5	31.9	13.6	1.9
India	12.9	12.9	3.4	3.4
Ireland	54.4	44.3	16.6	1.7
Israel	50.6	39.6	15.2	1.2
Japan	56.1
Luxembourg	51.5	46.6	31.4	2.9
New Zealand	39.8	35.8	6.3	1.1
Norway	48.1	36.5	15.4	1.5
Poland	33.9	33.8	26.2	0.8
Portugal	31.5	31.2	21.7	0.9
Slovenia	40.1	31.7	20.1	3.7
South Korea	52.8
Spain	41.1	28.5	17.2	0.8
Sweden	48.5	38.7	18.7	2.0
Switzerland	44.7	44.7	20.0	3.2
United Kingdom	51.3	42.3	15.8	1.7
United States	50.0	39.4	14.4	2.1

Challenges in Higher Education

Grade Inflation

Some tertiary institutions face criticism for permitting or encouraging grade inflation. This phenomenon can arise from institutional incentives to attract students and boost rankings by awarding higher grades, potentially compromising the academic rigor and perceived value of degrees.

Educational Inflation

In certain fields, the supply of graduates may outpace the demand for their skills. This can lead to issues such as graduate unemployment, underemployment, and overqualification, where individuals possess higher educational qualifications than their job requires, diminishing the return on educational investment.

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References

OECD.stat Educational Finance Indicators Indicator C2: Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP, 2020

OECD.stat Educational attainment and labour-force status, Educational attainment of 2-64 year-olds, 2022

A full list of references for this article are available at the Tertiary education Wikipedia page

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The Ascent of Knowledge

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Defining Tertiary Education ℹ️

🎓 Post-Secondary Learning

📊 Formal Classification

🏛️ Historical Context

A Journey Through Time ⏳

📜 Ancient Foundations

🏰 Medieval Universities

📈 Modern Expansion

🌐 Contemporary Trends

Global Enrollment & Access 🌍

📈 Participation Growth

⚖️ Access Disparities

🤝 Inclusive Education

Societal & Economic Impact 💡

🧠 Worldviews and Values

🤝 International Relations

💰 Economic Advancement

Institutions of Learning 🏛️

🏫 Diverse Offerings

🇺🇸 US System Structure

🛠️ Essential Skills

Data & Demographics 📊

💰 Educational Expenditure

🎓 Attainment Rates

Challenges in Higher Education ⚠️

📈 Grade Inflation

❓ Educational Inflation

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Important Considerations ⚠️

📜 AI-Generated Content Disclaimer

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Defining Tertiary Education

Post-Secondary Learning

Formal Classification

Historical Context

A Journey Through Time

Ancient Foundations

Medieval Universities

Modern Expansion

Contemporary Trends

Global Enrollment & Access

Participation Growth

Access Disparities

Inclusive Education

Societal & Economic Impact

Worldviews and Values

International Relations

Economic Advancement

Institutions of Learning

Diverse Offerings

US System Structure

Essential Skills

Data & Demographics

Educational Expenditure

Attainment Rates

Challenges in Higher Education

Grade Inflation

Educational Inflation

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Important Considerations

AI-Generated Content Disclaimer