Who was Thucydides and what is his most notable contribution to history?

Thucydides was an Athenian historian and general who lived in the 5th century BC. His most significant contribution is the *History of the Peloponnesian War*, which chronicles the conflict between Sparta and Athens up to the year 411 BC.

What reputation has Thucydides earned in the field of historical writing?

Thucydides is widely regarded as the father of "scientific history" due to his rigorous approach to evidence gathering, impartiality, and analysis of cause and effect, notably excluding divine intervention. He is also considered a founder of political realism, emphasizing the roles of fear and self-interest in international relations.

What specific aspects of human behavior did Thucydides analyze in his work?

Thucydides developed an understanding of human nature to explain behavior during critical events such as plagues, massacres, and wars, focusing on how individuals and societies react under extreme pressure.

Where is Thucydides's *History of the Peloponnesian War* still studied today?

Thucydides's seminal work continues to be studied extensively in universities and military colleges around the world, highlighting its enduring relevance.

What specific dialogues or speeches from Thucydides's work are considered seminal in their respective fields?

The Melian dialogue is recognized as a foundational text in international relations theory, while Pericles's Funeral Oration is widely studied by political theorists, historians, and classics scholars for its insights into leadership and democracy.

What is the primary source of information about Thucydides's life, and what key details does it reveal?

The most reliable information about Thucydides's life comes from his own *History of the Peloponnesian War*. He identified himself as an Athenian, stated his father's name was Olorus, and mentioned his birthplace as the Athenian deme of Halimous. He also documented his participation in the war, his experience with the plague, and his subsequent exile.

What significant personal health event did Thucydides experience and record?

Thucydides survived the Plague of Athens, an epidemic that significantly impacted the city and claimed many lives, including that of Pericles. His account of the plague also includes an early observation regarding acquired immunity.

What personal assets did Thucydides possess that are mentioned in the text?

Thucydides mentioned that he owned gold mines located in Scapte Hyle, a coastal area in Thrace opposite the island of Thasos.

What military role did Thucydides hold, and what specific event led to his exile?

Thucydides served as a strategos (general). His exile was a consequence of his failure to prevent the Spartan general Brasidas from capturing Amphipolis in 424-423 BC, an event for which he was held responsible despite his efforts to reach the city.

How did Thucydides's exile potentially benefit his historical research?

His twenty-year exile provided him with the freedom to travel extensively among the Peloponnesian allies, allowing him to gain a unique perspective on the war from both sides. This period also afforded him the leisure time necessary to dedicate himself fully to writing his history and conducting thorough research.

When did Thucydides claim he began writing his history, and what was his motivation?

Thucydides stated he began writing his history as soon as the Peloponnesian War commenced, motivated by his belief that it was a conflict of unprecedented scale and importance that deserved a comprehensive and enduring record.

What potential family connections did Thucydides have to prominent Athenian figures?

Thucydides likely had family ties to the influential Athenian statesman Cimon and his father Miltiades, leaders of the old aristocracy. This connection is suggested by the shared Thracian name Olorus, which belonged to both Thucydides's father and Cimon's maternal grandfather.

What is the significance of the name Oloros in relation to Thucydides's family?

The name Oloros, Thucydides's father's name, is noted as being of Thracian origin and associated with Thracian royalty, indicating a potential heritage or connection linking his family to Thrace.

What do later, less reliable ancient sources suggest about Thucydides's return from exile and his death?

Later sources suggest Thucydides was permitted to return to Athens after the war concluded in 404 BC. However, accounts vary regarding his death, with some sources claiming he was murdered upon his return, while others place his death in Skaptē Hylē.

Why is the abrupt ending of Thucydides's *History* considered significant?

The narrative of the *History of the Peloponnesian War* concludes abruptly in the middle of 411 BC. This has traditionally led to the explanation that Thucydides died while still writing the book, although other theories have also been proposed.

How did Thucydides's view of human nature, as described by Paul Shorey, characterize him?

Paul Shorey characterized Thucydides as a "cynic devoid of moral sensibility," believing that human nature was fundamentally shaped by environmental factors and basic desires.

What philosophical influences are suggested to have shaped Thucydides's work?

Thucydides's work shows influences from Sophistic thought, particularly in his views on justice and morality. His empirical approach and focus on natural causes also suggest an awareness of philosophers like Anaxagoras and Democritus, as well as the methods of Hippocratic medicine.

What was Thucydides's perspective on the predictability of historical events?

Thucydides explored the interplay between human intelligence, fortune, and necessity, but he also implied that history possesses an inherent irrationality and unpredictability.

How did Thucydides view the role of leadership within a democracy?

Scholars interpret Thucydides as believing that while democracies need effective leadership, such leadership can also present risks to the democratic system. He admired Pericles's leadership but was critical of subsequent demagogues.

What was Thucydides's stance on the common populace and radical democracy?

Thucydides expressed a critical view of radical democracy and the common people when they lacked guidance from a capable leader, although he considered democracy acceptable when steered by competent individuals.

What was Thucydides's stated goal in writing the *History of the Peloponnesian War*?

Thucydides aimed to create an account that would serve as a "possession for all time," providing a factual and analytical record of the Peloponnesian War, which he considered the most significant conflict in Greek history.

How did Thucydides's method of incorporating speeches differ from modern historical practices?

Thucydides reconstructed speeches as literary pieces to convey the essence of arguments or the ideal sentiments expressed, rather than providing verbatim quotes. This technique aimed to preserve the substance of oral accounts that might otherwise be lost.

What is the significance of Pericles's Funeral Oration as presented by Thucydides?

Thucydides's rendition of Pericles's Funeral Oration serves to honor the Athenian war dead and articulate the ideals of Athenian democracy. Its placement within the narrative also creates a powerful contrast with the subsequent description of the plague.

How did Thucydides's detailed description of the plague in Athens enhance his historical account?

The graphic and detailed portrayal of the plague's devastating impact, including the breakdown of social norms and burial practices, lent a powerful sense of realism and verisimilitude to Thucydides's work, effectively conveying the horror of human mortality.

What types of subject matter did Thucydides deliberately exclude from his historical narrative?

Thucydides intentionally omitted discussions related to the arts, literature, and the broader social context, focusing his narrative strictly on the political and military events he deemed crucial for understanding the war.

What tragic ethical vision did Francis Cornford attribute to Thucydides's perspective?

Francis Cornford suggested Thucydides held a tragic ethical view, portraying humans as navigating a difficult path shaped by character and fortune, susceptible to unexpected blows of fate, and often acting with limited foresight.

What specific aspect of Thucydides's writing style is noted as a key difference from Herodotus?

A key difference is Thucydides's focus on factual reporting and analysis, deliberately excluding the fables and less critical accounts often found in Herodotus's work, which aimed for a broader, more narrative approach.

How did Thucydides's approach to history differ from Herodotus regarding the role of the divine?

While Herodotus often incorporated divine actions and retribution into his historical narratives, Thucydides consciously excluded divine intervention, focusing instead on human agency and the observable chain of cause and effect.

What did J.B. Bury state about Thucydides's contribution to the development of history?

J.B. Bury asserted that Thucydides's work represented "the longest and most decisive step that has ever been taken by a single man towards making history what it is today," highlighting his foundational role in modern historiography.

What did Charles Norris Cochrane observe about Thucydides's methodology in relation to modern scientific approaches?

Charles Norris Cochrane viewed Thucydides's meticulous attention to observable facts, his focus on causality, and his exclusion of non-empirical factors as anticipating modern scientific positivism, suggesting a possible influence from early medical writers like Hippocrates.

What did Jacqueline de Romilly emphasize regarding Thucydides's treatment of Athenian imperialism?

Jacqueline de Romilly highlighted Athenian imperialism as a central preoccupation for Thucydides, placing his historical analysis within the context of ancient Greek discourse on international politics.

How has Thucydides's work been interpreted in terms of literary tradition and philosophical themes?

Some scholars see Thucydides's *History* as drawing from the literary traditions of Homer and Hesiod, engaging with themes of justice and suffering found in other Greek thinkers, and reflecting a tragic worldview.

What did Richard Ned Lebow imply by calling Thucydides 'the last of the tragedians'?

Lebow's description suggests that Thucydides utilized elements of epic poetry and tragedy in structuring his history, portraying the downfall of characters due to their flaws, thereby offering cautionary lessons for contemporary leaders.

What perspective did Karl Popper offer on Thucydides's work, including potential biases?

Karl Popper considered Thucydides perhaps the greatest historian ever, but also noted his work was an interpretation. Popper suggested Thucydides harbored an "involuntary bias" against Athens, possibly due to his exile and sympathies with oligarchic factions.

How did Thucydides's approach to recording events differ from that of a 'chronicler'?

Thucydides aimed for rigorous analysis and objective scrutiny of events, contrasting with a chronicler's potential for mere record-keeping or flattery. His work serves as a critical examination intended to inform future leaders.

What famous introductory statement by Thucydides is believed to subtly reference Herodotus?

Thucydides's opening remarks about his history being potentially "not delightful" due to its lack of fables, but valuable for understanding truth and recurring human behavior, are seen as a contrast to Herodotus's more narrative and sometimes legendary style.

How did Herodotus typically handle conflicting or questionable accounts in his historical writings?

Herodotus often presented multiple perspectives on events, stated his own belief, and then invited readers to make their own judgments, a method distinct from Thucydides's pursuit of definitive truth.

What was the primary difference in focus between Thucydides and Herodotus regarding historical subject matter?

Herodotus incorporated geographical, ethnographic details, and fables into his work, whereas Thucydides concentrated primarily on contemporary political and military events, largely omitting or minimizing other aspects.

How did later Greek historians generally regard Thucydides's writings compared to Herodotus?

Subsequent historians, including Ctesias, Diodorus, Strabo, Polybius, and Plutarch, considered Thucydides's work a model of truthful history. Lucian specifically noted that Thucydides established a standard for Greek historians to report factual events.

What did Cicero and Plutarch say about Herodotus in relation to Thucydides?

Cicero referred to Herodotus as the "father of history," while Plutarch offered a more critical view, labeling Herodotus a "barbarian lover" (philobarbaros).

How did the influence of Thucydides and Herodotus differ during the Middle Ages and Renaissance in Western Europe?

During the Middle Ages, both were less influential in Western Europe due to the loss of Greek literacy, though their impact continued in the Byzantine world. In the Renaissance, Thucydides garnered less attention as a political philosopher compared to Polybius, while Herodotus gained recognition later as an ethnographer.

What parallels have been identified between Thucydides and Niccolò Machiavelli?

Historians like J.B. Bury have noted similarities between Thucydides and Machiavelli, suggesting that Thucydides's emphasis on "reason of state" and the disregard for conventional morality anticipated Machiavelli's political philosophy.

How did Thomas Hobbes engage with Thucydides's work?

Thomas Hobbes greatly admired Thucydides and produced the first English translation of his work directly from the Greek text in 1628. Hobbes, along with Thucydides and Machiavelli, is considered a foundational figure in Western political realism.

What impact did the Annales School have on the perception of historical traditions?

The Annales School, which focused on long-term cultural and economic developments and daily life, is seen as extending Herodotus's tradition, contrasting with Thucydides's primary focus on political history.

How did Thucydides's influence manifest in the field of international relations during the Cold War?

Thucydides's ideas, particularly concerning political realism, became highly influential in international relations during the Cold War through the works of scholars such as Hans Morgenthau, Leo Strauss, and E.H. Carr.

What connection has been made between Thucydides and modern neoconservatism?

Irving Kristol, a key figure in American neoconservatism, described Thucydides's work as a foundational text for neoconservative foreign policy thought, and his writings are required reading at institutions like the Naval War College.

What alternative perspective suggests Herodotus's contribution was a more significant step in critical history than Thucydides's?

One viewpoint posits that while Thucydides initiated critical history, Herodotus's approach of seeking causal explanations for events beyond divine intervention represented a more substantial advancement in historical methodology.

What did Daniel Mendelsohn suggest about the perception of Thucydides's admirers during the Cold War?

Daniel Mendelsohn proposed that during the Cold War, expressing admiration for Thucydides's cynical realism regarding political hypocrisy was a way to signal oneself as a discerning analyst of global Realpolitik.

What is the 'Thucydides Trap'?

The 'Thucydides Trap' refers to a concept suggesting that when a rising power threatens to displace a ruling power, the resulting tension often leads to war. This concept is named after Thucydides's analysis of the Peloponnesian War.

How did Thucydides's understanding of human nature inform his analysis of crises like the plague in Athens?

Thucydides used the plague as an example to illustrate how extreme circumstances could reveal the darker aspects of human nature, leading to a breakdown of social norms, morality, and even religious practices, as people grappled with overwhelming suffering and uncertainty.

What did Thucydides mean by calling the Peloponnesian War 'an everlasting possession'?

By referring to his history as an 'everlasting possession,' Thucydides expressed his ambition for his work to be a timeless and enduring account, valuable for future generations seeking to understand the patterns of human behavior and the dynamics of conflict.

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The Life of Thucydides

Athenian Origins

Thucydides, an Athenian, hailed from the deme of Halimous. His father, Olorus, likely had connections to Thracian royalty, suggesting a family of considerable standing and influence, possibly owning estates with gold mines in Thrace. This background provided him with the resources and connections necessary for his extensive historical endeavors.

Military Service and Exile

He served as a general (strategos) during the Peloponnesian War. His military career was notably impacted by the fall of Amphipolis in 424 BC, an event for which he was subsequently exiled from Athens for twenty years. This exile, however, proved instrumental, granting him the freedom to travel extensively and gather information from both Athenian and Peloponnesian perspectives.

Dedication to History

Thucydides began chronicling the Peloponnesian War from its outset, driven by the conviction that it was a conflict of unprecedented significance. He dedicated himself to uncovering the "exact truth," meticulously gathering evidence through eyewitness accounts and participant interviews, laying the groundwork for what would become known as "scientific history."

The History of the Peloponnesian War

Scope and Method

Thucydides's magnum opus details the conflict between Athens and Sparta from 431 BC until 411 BC. He consciously excluded divine intervention and supernatural explanations, focusing instead on human agency, cause-and-effect relationships, and political and military factors. His rigorous approach to evidence and impartiality set a new standard for historical writing.

Speeches and Analysis

The work is renowned for its inclusion of lengthy, reconstructed speeches, such as Pericles's Funeral Oration and the Melian Dialogue. Thucydides used these speeches not as verbatim transcripts, but as literary devices to convey the political arguments, underlying motivations, and ethical dilemmas of the era. They offer profound insights into ancient Greek political thought and international relations theory.

Thucydides masterfully employed speeches to illuminate the core issues of the war:

Pericles's Funeral Oration: A powerful defense of Athenian democracy, highlighting its values and the sacrifices made by its citizens. It serves as a benchmark for political rhetoric and civic ideals.
The Melian Dialogue: A stark portrayal of power politics (realpolitik), illustrating the Athenian argument that "the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must," devoid of appeals to justice or morality.

Legacy and Influence

Though incomplete, the History has profoundly influenced Western historiography and political thought. It is studied in military and political institutions worldwide for its analysis of power dynamics, human nature under stress (e.g., during the Plague of Athens), and the cyclical nature of conflict. His work is considered a foundational text for the school of political realism.

Philosophical Outlook

Realism and Human Nature

Thucydides is often regarded as the father of political realism. He posited that human behavior, particularly in politics and war, is fundamentally driven by self-interest and fear. His analysis suggests that power, rather than justice or morality, often dictates the actions of states and individuals, a perspective starkly evident in dialogues like the Melian.

Skepticism and Rationality

Influenced by the Sophists and early scientific thinkers like Anaxagoras, Thucydides exhibited a rationalist and empirical outlook. He was skeptical of divine explanations and focused on observable phenomena and human motivations. His understanding of human nature was shaped by environmental and social factors, alongside basic desires, leading to a often pessimistic view of human conduct in crisis.

Thucydides's perspective on morality and justice is complex:

He observed that during extreme circumstances, like the plague or civil strife (e.g., Corcyra), conventional morality and religious norms often break down.
His work suggests that while humans possess foresight and reason, these are often overshadowed by ambition, fear, and the unpredictable force of fortune ("Tyche").
He presented events with a degree of detachment, focusing on factual reporting rather than moral judgment, though his admiration for figures like Pericles and disdain for demagogues like Cleon are evident.

Tragic Vision

Scholars like F.M. Cornford viewed Thucydides's work through a tragic lens, seeing human destiny as shaped by character and circumstance, often leading to downfall due to immoderate actions. His detailed accounts of suffering and the devastating impact of war, such as the plague in Athens, convey a profound sense of human vulnerability and the harsh realities of conflict.

Critical Interpretation

The Father of Scientific History

Thucydides is widely credited with pioneering a more rigorous and analytical approach to history. His emphasis on eyewitness testimony, critical examination of evidence, and the search for rational causes and effects distinguished him from earlier historians like Herodotus. His work marked a significant step towards modern historical scholarship.

Political Thought

His writings have been interpreted as both a critique and a defense of democracy, depending on leadership. Leo Strauss noted Thucydides's ambivalence towards Athenian democracy, suggesting that while it liberated individual potential, it also fueled imperialistic ambition and internal strife. His analysis of power dynamics remains highly relevant to contemporary international relations.

Literary and Methodological Debates

Scholars continue to debate Thucydides's methods and influences. Charles Norris Cochrane suggested a link between Thucydides's empirical approach and the methods of Hippocrates. Others emphasize the literary qualities of his narrative, drawing parallels with epic poetry and tragedy, and highlighting his focus on the human condition amidst conflict.

Thucydides vs. Herodotus

Historical Focus

While Herodotus, the "Father of History," incorporated geography, ethnography, and folklore, often including divine explanations and moral lessons, Thucydides focused narrowly on the political and military events of the Peloponnesian War. He deliberately excluded what he considered extraneous details.

Style and Purpose

Herodotus aimed to preserve diverse accounts and provide engaging narratives, often for oral recitation. Thucydides sought to create an "everlasting possession," emphasizing factual accuracy and rational analysis. His style is characterized by its gravity, precision, and intellectual rigor, contrasting with Herodotus's more expansive and anecdotal approach.

Influence and Reception

Both historians have profoundly shaped Western thought. Herodotus inspired social and cultural history (Annales School), while Thucydides became a model for political and military history, influencing thinkers from Machiavelli to modern realists like Hans Morgenthau and Henry Kissinger. His objective, analytical method remains a cornerstone of historical inquiry.

Sources and Further Reading

Primary Texts

The foundational text is Thucydides's own History of the Peloponnesian War. Key translations and critical editions provide access to his work:

Crawley translation (classic, available in various editions)
Lattimore translation (Hackett Publishing)
Strassler's The Landmark Thucydides (comprehensive annotated edition)
Original Greek texts (e.g., Alberti edition)

Scholarly Works

Extensive secondary literature offers diverse interpretations of Thucydides's life, work, and influence:

Biographical & Methodological Studies: Works by Cochrane, Finley, Hornblower, Kagan, and Zagorin explore his historical approach and life.
Political and Philosophical Analysis: Scholars like Strauss, Cornford, Lebow, and Orwin examine his theories on realism, power, and human nature.
Comparative Studies: Analyses comparing Thucydides with Herodotus, such as those by Momigliano and Bury, highlight their distinct contributions.

Digital Resources

Access to Thucydides's texts and related scholarship is widely available:

Perseus Digital Library
Project Gutenberg & Standard Ebooks (for public domain texts)
Internet Archive & LibriVox (for texts and audiobooks)
Academic databases and university library resources

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References

Virginia J. Hunter,Past and Process in Herodotus and Thucydides, (Princeton University Press, 2017), 4.

Thucydides 4.104

Herodot iz Halikarnasa. Zgodbe. Ljubljana: Slovenska Matica v Ljubljani (2003), p. 22. The original quote (in Slovene): Oloros, tvoj sin koprni po izobrazbi.

Thucydides 2.48.1–3

Thucydides 2.51.6

Thucydides 4.105.1

Thucydides 4.104.1

Thucydides 4.105â106.3

Thucydides 4.108.1–7

Thucydides 5.26.5

6.39.1

Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.23.9

Thucydides 2.65.1

Thucydides 3.36.6

Thucydides 8.73.3

Marcellinus, Life of Thucydides 46

Thucydides 3.82â83

Thucydides 1.1.1

Thucydides 1.1

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 9

Thucydides 1.22.4

Mynott, Jeremy, The War of the Peloponnesians and Athenians. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (2013). p. 11

Hornblower, Simon, Spawforth, Antony, Eidinow, Esther, The Oxford Classical Dictionary. New York, Oxford University Press (2012). pp. 692â693

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 144.

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 152.

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 147.

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 156.

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 157.

Zagorin, Perez. Thucydides. (Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 160.

Thucydides 1.22

Thucydides 1.23

Plutarch, On the Malignity of Herodotus, Moralia XI (Loeb Classical Library 426).

J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (London, MacMillan, 1909), pp. 140â143.

Johannes von MÃ¼ller, The History of the World (Boston: Thomas H. Webb and Co., 1842), Vol. 1, p. 61.

See Anthony Grafton, The Footnote, a Curious History (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1999)

See, for example, E. H. Carr's The Twenty Years' Crisis.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Thucydides Wikipedia page

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This is not professional historical or political analysis. The information presented should not substitute consultation with academic experts or primary source analysis. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy based on the provided source material, the complexity of Thucydides's work and its interpretations warrants critical engagement by the reader.

The creators of this page are not liable for any inaccuracies, omissions, or interpretations derived from this AI-generated content.

Thucydides: The Architect of Historical Inquiry

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

The Life of Thucydides 🏛️

📜 Athenian Origins

⚔️ Military Service and Exile

✍️ Dedication to History

The History of the Peloponnesian War 📖

🎯 Scope and Method

🗣️ Speeches and Analysis

⏳ Legacy and Influence

Philosophical Outlook 🧠

⚖️ Realism and Human Nature

🤔 Skepticism and Rationality

🎭 Tragic Vision

Critical Interpretation 🧐

🔬 The Father of Scientific History

🏛️ Political Thought

📚 Literary and Methodological Debates

Thucydides vs. Herodotus ⚖️

📜 Historical Focus

✨ Style and Purpose

💡 Influence and Reception

Sources and Further Reading 📚

📖 Primary Texts

🎓 Scholarly Works

🔗 Digital Resources

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

The Life of Thucydides

Athenian Origins

Military Service and Exile

Dedication to History

The History of the Peloponnesian War

Scope and Method

Speeches and Analysis

Legacy and Influence

Philosophical Outlook

Realism and Human Nature

Skepticism and Rationality

Tragic Vision

Critical Interpretation

The Father of Scientific History

Political Thought

Literary and Methodological Debates

Thucydides vs. Herodotus

Historical Focus

Style and Purpose

Influence and Reception

Sources and Further Reading

Primary Texts

Scholarly Works

Digital Resources

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Academic Disclaimer

Important Notice