What was the Tughlaq dynasty and during which period did it rule over the Delhi Sultanate?

The Tughlaq dynasty was the third dynasty to govern the Delhi Sultanate in medieval India. Its rule commenced in 1320 and concluded in 1413, marking a significant period in the history of the Indian subcontinent.

What is the etymology of the name 'Tughlaq', and how is its use as a dynasty name explained?

The etymology of the name 'Tughlaq' is uncertain, with the 16th-century writer Firishta suggesting it might be an Indian corruption of the Turkic term 'Qutlugh,' though this is considered doubtful by historians. Literary, numismatic, and epigraphic evidence indicates that 'Tughlaq' was the personal name of the dynasty's founder, Ghazi Malik, rather than an ancestral designation. Historians use 'Tughlaq' for convenience to refer to the entire dynasty, but it's noted that none of the kings used it as a surname, except for Muhammad bin Tughluq, who referred to himself as 'son of Tughlaq Shah'.

What is known about the ancestry of the Tughlaq dynasty's founder, Ghazi Malik?

The ancestry of the Tughlaq dynasty's founder, Ghazi Malik (later Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq), is debated among historians. However, he is generally considered to be of Turko-Mongol or Turkic origin. His court poet, Badr-i Chach, attempted to establish a royal Sassanian genealogy for the dynasty, linking it to Bahram Gur, though this is often dismissed as flattery. Firishta claimed Tughlaq's father was a slave of Balban and his mother was a Jat lady from Punjab, but this lacks contemporary confirmation.

According to Ibn Battuta, what was the tribal affiliation of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq?

The Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta stated, referencing the Sufi saint Rukn-e-Alam, that Tughluq belonged to the 'Qarauna' tribe of Turks. This tribe, according to Ibn Battuta, resided in the mountainous region between Turkestan and Sindh and were essentially Mongols.

How did the Tughlaq dynasty come to power, succeeding the Khalji dynasty?

The Tughlaq dynasty rose to power after the fall of the Khalji dynasty. Following the death of Alauddin Khalji in 1316, a period of instability and assassinations occurred, culminating in the Hindu slave Khusro Khan seizing power in June 1320. Khusro Khan's reversion from Islam and lack of support from the Muslim aristocracy led them to invite Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab, to lead a coup. In 1320, Ghazi Malik successfully attacked and killed Khusro Khan, assuming the throne and establishing the Tughlaq dynasty.

What were the initial policies of Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq upon assuming the throne?

Upon taking the throne, Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq rewarded the maliks, amirs, and officials who had supported his rise to power and punished those who had served his predecessor, Khusro Khan. He adjusted tax rates, lowering them for Muslims while increasing them for Hindus, with the stated aim of preventing the latter from becoming rebellious due to wealth.

What significant construction project did Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq initiate?

Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq ordered the construction of a new city six kilometers east of Delhi, featuring a fort designed for better defense against Mongol incursions. He named this city Tughlakabad.

What military campaigns were undertaken during Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq's reign?

In 1321, Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq dispatched his son, Jauna Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughluq), to Deogir to campaign against the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang. After an initial failure, Jauna Khan succeeded in a subsequent campaign, leading to the capture of Arangal, its renaming to Sultanpur, and the transfer of wealth and captives to Delhi. Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq also led a campaign into Bengal between 1324-1325, responding to an invitation from the Muslim aristocracy there.

How did Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq die, and what are the differing accounts of his demise?

Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq died in 1325. While returning from a campaign in Bengal with his favorite son Mahmud Khan, they entered a wooden structure (kushk) built by Jauna Khan. Historic documents suggest Jauna Khan may have orchestrated the collapse of this structure, possibly due to fears of his father's intentions. While some accounts attribute the collapse to elephants or a lightning strike, others, including court historian Al-Badaoni, mention the elephants and include rumors of the event being pre-planned, leading to the deaths of Ghiyathuddin and Mahmud Khan.

Who succeeded Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq, and what is noted about his reign's duration?

Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq was succeeded by his eldest son, Jauna Khan, who ascended to the throne as Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled for 26 years, from 1325 to 1351.

What was the territorial extent of the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughluq?

Under Muhammad bin Tughluq's rule, the Delhi Sultanate reached its zenith in terms of geographical reach, temporarily expanding to encompass most of the Indian subcontinent. This vast empire was achieved through military campaigns and plunder of various regions, including Malwa, Gujarat, Mabar, and Lakhnauti.

What were the consequences of Muhammad bin Tughluq's tax policies and administrative decisions?

Muhammad bin Tughluq's policies led to severe economic consequences and widespread discontent. He significantly increased land taxes, particularly in the fertile Ganges-Yamuna doab, causing farmers to abandon their lands and leading to famines. His decision to mint token currency from base metals also resulted in economic collapse due to widespread forgery. Furthermore, his cruel punishments for dissent and rebellions, including mass executions and torture, created widespread hatred and instability.

What was Muhammad bin Tughluq's controversial decision regarding the capital city, and what were its effects?

Muhammad bin Tughluq chose Deogiri, renaming it Daulatabad, as a second administrative capital and ordered a forced migration of Delhi's Muslim elite to the new city. The purpose was to consolidate his power and support his ambitions for world conquest. This move caused significant hardship and resentment among the nobility, fostering a lasting hatred for the Sultan, although it did contribute to the growth of Daulatabad's Muslim population.

What military expeditions did Muhammad bin Tughluq plan, and what were their outcomes?

Muhammad bin Tughluq planned ambitious military campaigns targeting Khurasan (in Persia) and China, aiming to expand the reach of Sunni Islam. The Khurasan campaign failed due to the immense cost and lack of resources to sustain the army. The expedition towards China, involving 100,000 soldiers sent over the Himalayas, was disastrous, with the army perishing due to harsh conditions, lack of retreat, and local resistance, particularly from Prithvi Chand II of Kangra.

How did the Delhi Sultanate's territory change during Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign?

Despite reaching its peak territorial extent early in his reign (around 1330-1335), the Delhi Sultanate began to shrink significantly under Muhammad bin Tughluq. Rebellions became routine, and by 1335, the empire's reach had diminished. Regions like the Madurai Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire declared independence, and by 1347, the Deccan had also revolted, leading to the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate.

What is the historical assessment of Muhammad bin Tughluq's character and motivations?

Historians offer varied perspectives on Muhammad bin Tughluq's actions. Some suggest he was influenced by figures like Ibn Taymiyyah and sought to enforce orthodox Islamic practices and promote jihad. Others attribute his erratic and often brutal policies to potential insanity. His reign was marked by intellectualism, but also by deep suspicion of his kinsmen, severity towards opponents, and economically destabilizing decisions.

Who succeeded Muhammad bin Tughluq, and what characterized his rule?

After a brief rule by Mahmud Ibn Muhammad, Muhammad bin Tughluq's nephew, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, ascended the throne. His reign lasted for 37 years. Firuz Shah is described by his court historian Ziauddin Barni as a mild ruler compared to his predecessors, and he is credited with banning extreme forms of torture and initiating infrastructure projects.

What were some of the key infrastructure and architectural contributions during Firoz Shah Tughlaq's reign?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a significant patron of architecture and infrastructure. He commissioned numerous construction projects, including irrigation canals connecting the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers, bridges, madrasas (religious schools), and mosques. He is particularly noted for patronizing Indo-Islamic architecture and for installing ancient pillars, such as Ashoka's Delhi-Topra pillar, near mosques.

What was Firoz Shah Tughlaq's stance on religious tolerance and punishment?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq's reign saw a complex approach to religious matters. While he banned torture, he also demonstrated intolerance towards certain groups. He did not tolerate proselytizing efforts by Shia Muslims and Mahdi sects and punished Hindus who attempted to rebuild temples destroyed by his armies. His memoirs mention putting many Shias, Mahdis, and Hindus to death (siyasat) as punishment. He also incentivized conversion to Sunni Islam by offering tax exemptions and honors, while simultaneously increasing taxes and jizya, notably ending the historical exemption for Brahmins.

What led to the decline and eventual downfall of the Tughlaq dynasty?

The Tughlaq dynasty's downfall was a gradual process exacerbated by several factors. Rebellions and the declaration of independence by provinces like Bengal, Sindh, and Multan began during Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign. The devastating invasion by Timur in 1398 further weakened the empire, leading to the rise of regional sultanates like Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur. Internal civil wars among factions of the Muslim nobility also contributed to the disintegration. Ultimately, the dynasty was overthrown by Khizr Khan, the former governor of Multan, who established the Sayyid dynasty.

What role did civil wars play in the weakening of the Tughlaq dynasty?

Civil wars, particularly those occurring in 1384 and again in 1394, significantly weakened the Tughlaq dynasty. These conflicts were primarily driven by rivalries among factions of the Sunni Islamic aristocracy, each vying for power and control over resources. The internal strife created anarchy, led to the execution of nobles, and contributed to the overall disintegration of the Sultanate's authority.

Describe the impact of Timur's invasion on the Tughlaq dynasty and Delhi.

Timur's invasion in 1398 marked a critical low point for the Tughlaq dynasty. Timur's forces defeated the Sultanate's armies, and upon entering Delhi, subjected the city to brutal plunder and massacre for eight days, resulting in the deaths of over 100,000 prisoners. The invasion devastated Delhi, a city then considered one of the world's richest, and its recovery took nearly a century, further accelerating the Tughlaq dynasty's decline.

What did Ibn Battuta record about the Tughlaq dynasty's administration and justice system?

Ibn Battuta's memoirs provide vivid details of the Tughlaq administration, particularly under Muhammad bin Tughluq. He described the Sultan's readiness to shed blood, detailing horrific punishments such as flaying alive, dismemberment, and torture by elephants. Ibn Battuta also noted the prevalence of bribery among officials and the Sultan's harsh treatment of both Muslims and non-Muslims, including religious figures suspected of dissent.

What was the practice of slavery like under the Tughlaq dynasty?

Slavery was a notable aspect of the Tughlaq dynasty, with military campaigns and raids on non-Muslim kingdoms yielding captives who were traded in slave markets. The dynasty's sultans, particularly Ghiyathuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad Tughlaq, and Firoz Tughlaq, actively patronized this market. Slaves were also used as diplomatic gifts, with Muhammad Tughlaq sending slave boys and girls to countries like China.

What challenges did the Tughlaq rulers face from Muslim nobility and revolts?

The Tughlaq dynasty, especially during Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign and continuing under later rulers like Firoz Shah Tughlaq, faced numerous revolts from the Muslim nobility. These revolts often stemmed from the system of appointing family members and nobles as provincial governors (na'ibs) under contract, granting them rights to collect taxes from peasants in exchange for a fixed tribute to the Sultan. This system fostered corruption, abuse, and ultimately, rebellion and secession.

How did the Tughlaq dynasty manage its vast empire, and what were the consequences of this system?

The Tughlaqs attempted to manage their expansive empire by appointing relatives and Muslim aristocracy as provincial governors (na'ibs) under contract. These contracts stipulated that the na'ibs could forcefully collect taxes from peasants, keeping a portion for themselves while remitting a fixed sum to the Sultan's treasury. This system, which also involved subcontracts with local amirs and commanders, led to widespread corruption, exploitation of peasants, and frequent rebellions as nobles sought to increase their own wealth and autonomy.

What is the significance of the Tughlaq dynasty in the context of Indo-Islamic architecture?

The Tughlaq dynasty, particularly under Firoz Shah Tughlaq, played a significant role in the development of Indo-Islamic architecture. The sultans patronized numerous construction projects, including forts, mosques, madrasas, and tombs. Notable examples include Tughlaqabad Fort, the tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, and Feroz Shah Kotla, which famously incorporated an ancient Ashoka pillar, showcasing a blend of architectural styles and historical reuse.

Who were the key rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty, and what were their respective reign periods?

The main rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty were: Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (1320-1325), Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-1351), Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388), Tughluq Khan (1388-1389), Abu Bakr Shah (1389-1390), Muhammad Shah (1390-1394), Ala-ud-din Sikandar Shah (1394), Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughluq (1394-1412/1413), and Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq (1394-1398).

What happened to the Delhi Sultanate after the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq?

Following the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1388, the Tughlaq dynasty's power rapidly declined. His death was followed by anarchy and internal strife among his descendants, leading to civil wars and the fragmentation of the kingdom. This weakened state made the Sultanate vulnerable to external threats and internal revolts, paving the way for its eventual overthrow.

What was the state of the Delhi Sultanate in 1400 CE, according to historical maps?

Historical maps from around 1400 CE depict the Delhi Sultanate, towards the end of the Tughlaq dynasty's rule, as significantly diminished. The Sultanate's territory had shrunk considerably, with various regional powers, including the Timurid Empire to the northwest, the Shah Mir dynasty in Kashmir, and emerging sultanates like Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur, asserting their influence or independence.

What specific examples of architectural patronage are associated with the Tughlaq dynasty?

The Tughlaq dynasty, particularly Firoz Shah Tughlaq, is associated with significant architectural patronage. Examples include the construction of Tughlaqabad Fort and the tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq within it. Firoz Shah Tughlaq also built Feroz Shah Kotla, which reused Ashoka's Delhi-Topra pillar, and the Wazirabad mosque. The Hilal Khan Ghazi Mosque in Dholka, Gujarat, is another example of architecture from this period.

What was the significance of the Delhi-Topra pillar in the context of Tughlaq architecture?

The Delhi-Topra pillar, originally erected by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, was relocated and installed by Firoz Shah Tughlaq near a mosque in his fortress, Feroz Shah Kotla. Initially, there was a plan to use it as a minaret, but the Sultan decided otherwise. The Brahmi script inscriptions on the pillar, which contained Ashoka's Edicts, were not understood in Firoz Shah's time.

What were the primary languages used during the Tughlaq dynasty's rule?

During the Tughlaq dynasty, Persian served as the official language. Hindavi, which evolved into modern Hindustani, was also widely spoken and used by the elites as a lingua franca.

What was the religious affiliation of the Tughlaq dynasty?

The Tughlaq dynasty adhered to Sunni Islam.

What currency was used during the Tughlaq dynasty?

The currency used during the Tughlaq dynasty was the 'Taka', which is also referred to as the Ancient Taka.

Which dynasties preceded and succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate?

The Tughlaq dynasty succeeded the Khalji dynasty and was followed by the Sayyid dynasty. Several other regional sultanates, such as those of Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur, also emerged during or after the Tughlaq period.

What regions currently form part of the territory once ruled by the Tughlaq dynasty?

The territory formerly ruled by the Tughlaq dynasty now primarily comprises parts of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

What historical era is associated with the Tughlaq dynasty?

The Tughlaq dynasty is associated with the Medieval period of history.

What was the fate of the Tughlaq dynasty's rule in the Deccan region?

The Deccan region revolted under Ismail Mukh, an Afghan, by 1347. He eventually stepped down in favor of Zafar Khan, another Afghan, who founded the independent Bahmani Sultanate, marking the loss of Tughlaq control over the Deccan.

What specific examples of cruelty are attributed to Muhammad bin Tughluq by Ibn Battuta?

Ibn Battuta documented extreme cruelty by Muhammad bin Tughluq, including the execution of people by cutting them in half, skinning them alive, or having them tossed by elephants with swords attached to their tusks. He also described the horrific torture and execution of a Sufi holy man, Sheikh Shinab al-Din, which involved forcing him to consume excrement before beheading him.

What was the outcome of Muhammad bin Tughluq's attempt to conquer China via the Himalayas?

Muhammad bin Tughluq's expedition of 100,000 soldiers towards China through the Himalayas ended in disaster. The army was unable to cope with the high mountain weather and lack of retreat, with nearly all soldiers perishing by 1333. Prithvi Chand II of Kangra played a role in defeating the Tughlaq army, and those who returned with news of the defeat were executed by the Sultan.

What was the primary reason for the civil wars among the Tughlaq nobility?

The civil wars among the Tughlaq nobility were primarily driven by the desire for sovereignty and the control over land and its resources, particularly the right to tax non-Muslim peasants and extract income from resident farmers.

How did the Tughlaq dynasty's rulers attempt to manage their vast territories?

The Tughlaq rulers attempted to manage their expanded empire by appointing family members and members of the Muslim aristocracy as provincial governors, known as 'na'ibs'. These na'ibs were granted 'iqta's' (farming provinces) under contract, which required them to collect taxes forcefully from non-Muslim peasants and deposit a fixed sum to the Sultan's treasury periodically.

What was the policy of Firoz Shah Tughlaq regarding the jizya tax?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq significantly altered the policy regarding the jizya tax. While his predecessors had historically exempted all Hindu Brahmins from this tax, Firoz Shah ended this practice, assessing the jizya at three levels. He also offered exemptions from jizya and other taxes to Hindus who converted to Sunni Islam.

What impact did Muhammad bin Tughluq's token currency experiment have on the economy?

Muhammad bin Tughluq's introduction of token currency made from base metals, intended to supplement the silver coinage, led to a severe economic collapse. The ease with which counterfeit coins could be minted resulted in widespread forgery, devaluing the currency and causing significant loss to the treasury. People were also unwilling to exchange their gold and silver for the new base metal coins.

What historical event is considered the lowest point for the Tughlaq dynasty?

The invasion by the Turco-Mongol invader Timur (Tamerlane) in 1398 is considered the lowest point for the Tughlaq dynasty. Timur's forces defeated the Sultanate's armies, captured Delhi, and subjected the city to widespread plunder and massacre, severely weakening the dynasty's authority and control.

What role did the Vijayanagara Empire play in relation to the Delhi Sultanate during the Tughlaq period?

The Vijayanagara Empire emerged in southern India as a direct response to the Tughlaq Sultanate's attacks. It played a crucial role in liberating southern India from the Delhi Sultanate's control, effectively challenging and pushing back against Tughlaq expansion and influence in the region.

What was the nature of the relationship between the Tughlaq rulers and the Muslim nobility?

The relationship between the Tughlaq rulers and the Muslim nobility was often strained, marked by revolts and conspiracies. While the nobility was instrumental in placing rulers like Firoz Shah Tughlaq on the throne, their own ambitions for power and wealth frequently led to conflict and challenges to the Sultan's authority, particularly during periods of weak leadership.

What specific measures did Firoz Shah Tughlaq take to reform the justice system?

Firoz Shah Tughlaq implemented reforms aimed at reducing cruelty in the justice system. In his memoirs, he stated that he banned practices such as amputations, eye-gouging, sawing people alive, crushing bones, pouring molten lead down throats, burning people, and driving nails into hands and feet, which had been employed as punishments by his predecessors.

What was the significance of the Catalan Atlas of 1375 in depicting the Tughlaq dynasty?

The Catalan Atlas of 1375 provides a visual representation of the Tughlaq dynasty, including its flag and the extent of its territory around 1330-1335. The atlas depicts the Sultan of Delhi with a flag described as grey with a black vertical stripe, and its captions offer details about the Sultan's power and the wealth of the region, contributing to historical understanding of the period.

What were the main reasons for the economic collapse experienced by the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughluq?

The economic collapse during Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign was primarily caused by his expensive military campaigns, the introduction of a failed token currency system, and the subsequent famine. These factors depleted the state treasury, reduced agricultural output due to excessive taxation and famine, and undermined public trust in the currency.

Tughlaq Dynasty Wiki: The Tughlaq Era: A Dynasty's Dominion and Decline

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Dynastic Origins

Etymological Uncertainty

The precise origin of the name "Tughlaq" remains a subject of historical debate. While some 16th-century sources, like Firishta, suggest an Indian corruption of the Turkic term "Qutlugh," this assertion is considered doubtful by many historians. Evidence from literature, coinage, and inscriptions indicates that "Tughlaq" was not an ancestral designation but the personal name of the dynasty's founder, Ghazi Malik. The designation "Tughlaq dynasty" is a convenience adopted by historians, as none of the rulers used it as a surname; only Muhammad bin Tughluq referred to himself as the "son of Tughlaq Shah."¹⁶¹⁸

Ancestral Roots

Modern historians present differing views on the dynasty's ancestry due to conflicting information in earlier sources. However, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq is generally accepted to have had Turko-Mongol or Turkic origins.¹⁹²⁰ His court poet, Badr-i Chach, attempted to establish a royal Sassanian lineage, possibly reflecting an official genealogical claim.²¹²² Firishta suggests Tughluq's father was a slave of Balban with Turko-Mongol background, and his mother was a Jat woman from Punjab, though this lacks contemporary corroboration.²³²² Ibn Battuta identifies Tughluq as belonging to the "Qarauna" tribe of Turks, a group residing between Turkestan and Sindh, essentially identifying them as Mongols.²⁵

Dynastic History

Ascent to Power

The Tughlaq dynasty succeeded the Khalji dynasty, which ruled the Delhi Sultanate until 1320. The Khalji's final ruler, Khusro Khan, a Hindu convert to Islam who later reverted, was overthrown by Ghazi Malik. Lacking support from the Muslim aristocracy, Khusro Khan was deposed by Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab. Ghazi Malik assumed the throne, renaming himself Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq and establishing the Tughlaq dynasty.¹⁵³²

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (r. 1320–1325)

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq implemented policies that included lowering taxes for Muslims while increasing them for Hindus, aiming to prevent potential rebellions.³³ He initiated the construction of Tughlakabad, a fortified city east of Delhi, intended to bolster defenses against Mongol incursions.³⁴ His military campaigns extended into regions like Deogir and Bengal. His reign concluded abruptly in 1325 when a structure built for his reception collapsed, resulting in his death, an event widely believed to have been orchestrated by his son, Jauna Khan.³⁸³⁹

Muhammad bin Tughluq (r. 1325–1351)

Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign marked the zenith of the Sultanate's territorial reach, encompassing much of the Indian subcontinent. However, his ambitious and often controversial policies led to widespread discontent and rebellion. Notable actions included the costly transfer of the capital to Daulatabad, the introduction of token currency which caused economic upheaval, and severe tax increases that contributed to famine.⁴³⁴⁵ His rule was characterized by both intellectual depth and extreme cruelty, with numerous executions and harsh punishments documented by contemporaries like Ibn Battuta.⁷⁷ Military expeditions to Khurasan and China also proved disastrously expensive and unsuccessful.⁴⁶

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388)

Ascending the throne after Muhammad bin Tughluq's death, Firoz Shah Tughlaq sought to stabilize the realm. An educated ruler, he implemented reforms, including the abolition of torture and the promotion of infrastructure projects like irrigation canals and public buildings.⁸⁸ He also patronized Indo-Islamic architecture. However, his reign saw increased religious intolerance and persecution of certain groups.⁸⁹ Despite efforts to restore order, his military leadership was considered weak, failing to reconquer Bengal and facing internal strife and assassination attempts.⁸⁴

Notable Rulers

Dynasty Leaders

The Tughlaq dynasty saw several rulers, each leaving a distinct mark on the Delhi Sultanate. The early rulers expanded the empire significantly, while later reigns were marked by internal conflict and the eventual decline of central authority.

Titular Name	Personal Name	Reign
Ghiyath-ud-din Tughluq Shah	Ghazi Malik	1320–1325
Muhammad Adil bin Tughluq Shah (Ulugh Khan, Juna Khan)	Malik Fakhr-ud-din Jauna	1325–1351
Firoz Shah Tughluq	Malik Feroze ibn Malik Rajab	1351–1388
Ghiyath-ud-din Tughluq Shah II	Tughluq Khan ibn Fateh Khan ibn Feroze Shah	1388–1389
Abu Bakr Shah	Abu Bakr Khan ibn Zafar Khan ibn Fateh Khan ibn Feroze Shah	1389–1390
Muhammad Shah III	Muhammad Shah ibn Feroze Shah	1390–1393
Ala-ud-din Sikandar Shah	Humayun Khan	1393
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah Tughluq	Mahmud Shah ibn Muhammad Shah	1394–1412/1413
Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq	Nusrat Khan ibn Fateh Khan ibn Feroze Shah	1394–1398

Note: Yellow and orange rows indicate periods of dual rule and fragmentation of the Sultanate.

Architectural Legacy

Patronage and Innovation

The Tughlaq sultans, particularly Firoz Shah Tughlaq, were significant patrons of architecture, contributing to the development of Indo-Islamic styles. Their constructions often featured robust, fortress-like designs and incorporated elements from earlier periods.

Key Structures

Notable architectural contributions include:

Tughlaqabad Fort

Feroz Shah Kotla

Ashoka Pillar Installation

Mosques & Madrasas

The dynasty is also noted for reusing ancient structures, such as Ashoka's Delhi-Topra pillar, integrating historical elements into their constructions. The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam in Multan stands as an early example of Tughlaq architecture.

Decline and Fragmentation

Internal Strife

Following Firoz Shah Tughluq's death in 1388, the dynasty experienced severe internal conflicts. Civil wars erupted among factions of the Muslim nobility vying for power and control over territories and tax revenues. This instability weakened the central authority significantly.

Timur's Invasion (1398)

The invasion by Timur (Tamerlane) marked a catastrophic blow to the Tughlaq dynasty. Timur's forces defeated multiple Sultanate armies, leading to the brutal sack of Delhi. The city endured widespread massacres and plunder, crippling its economic and political power for decades.¹⁰¹¹⁰²

Fragmentation

The combined effects of internal rebellions and Timur's invasion led to the disintegration of the Sultanate. Provinces like Bengal, Sindh, and the Deccan had already declared independence. Timur's invasion further accelerated this process, enabling the emergence of regional powers such as the Sultanates of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur. The Tughlaq dynasty's authority effectively collapsed, paving the way for the Sayyid dynasty.

Ibn Battuta's Observations

Moroccan Traveler's Account

The renowned Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq (1334–1341). His extensive memoirs provide invaluable insights into the Tughlaq court, administration, and society. He noted the Sultan's intellectualism, his penchant for grand projects, and his notorious severity.

Justice and Cruelty

Battuta described Muhammad bin Tughluq's administration of justice, which was often characterized by extreme punishments. He documented instances of public executions, torture, and the arbitrary shedding of blood, even against religious figures and nobles.⁷⁷⁷⁸ He also detailed the corruption within the bureaucracy, including demands for bribes and deductions from official salaries.

Economic Policies and Famine

Battuta's writings corroborate the accounts of economic hardship, including the devastating famine that struck regions near Delhi. He also mentioned the Sultan's controversial experiment with token currency, which led to widespread forgery and further economic instability.⁴¹⁷⁷ He observed the practice of awarding tax collection rights to officials as payment, highlighting the exploitative nature of the administration.

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References

W. Haig (1958), The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, pp 153-163

Henry Sharp (1938), DELHI: A STORY IN STONE, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 86, No. 4448, pp 324-325

Muá¸¥ammad ibn Tughluq EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica

Domenic Marbaniang, "The Corrosion of Gold in Light of Modern Christian Economics", Journal of Contemporary Christian, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Bangalore: CFCC), August 2013, p. 66

Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, Oxford University Press, Chapter 2, pp. 236â242

Bihamadkhani, Muhammad (date unclear, estim. early 15th century) Ta'rikh-i Muhammadi, Translator: Muhammad Zaki, Aligarh Muslim University

Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp. 125â8

H. Gibb (1956), The Travels of Ibn Battuta, Vols. I, II, III, Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 693â709

Per painting label

"nakÌ²hÌ²kÌ²hÌ²Äs", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Editors: P.J. Bearmanet al, Brill, The Netherlands

James Brown (1949), The History of Islam in India, The Muslim World, Volume 39, Issue 1, pp. 11â25

William McKibben (1994), The Monumental Pillars of FÄ«rÅ«z ShÄh Tughluq. Ars orientalis, Vol. 24, pp. 105â118

A full list of references for this article are available at the Tughlaq dynasty Wikipedia page

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The Tughlaq Era

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Dynastic Origins 👑

❓ Etymological Uncertainty

🌍 Ancestral Roots

Dynastic History ⏳

🚀 Ascent to Power

🏛️ Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (r. 1320–1325)

🧠 Muhammad bin Tughluq (r. 1325–1351)

🏗️ Firoz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388)

Notable Rulers 📜

👑 Dynasty Leaders

Architectural Legacy 🏛️

🏗️ Patronage and Innovation

📍 Key Structures

Decline and Fragmentation 📉

⚔️ Internal Strife

🔥 Timur's Invasion (1398)

💥 Fragmentation

Ibn Battuta's Observations ✍️

🌍 Moroccan Traveler's Account

⚖️ Justice and Cruelty

💰 Economic Policies and Famine

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References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Dynastic Origins

Etymological Uncertainty

Ancestral Roots

Dynastic History

Ascent to Power

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (r. 1320–1325)

Muhammad bin Tughluq (r. 1325–1351)

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388)

Notable Rulers

Dynasty Leaders

Architectural Legacy

Patronage and Innovation

Key Structures

Decline and Fragmentation

Internal Strife

Timur's Invasion (1398)

Fragmentation

Ibn Battuta's Observations

Moroccan Traveler's Account

Justice and Cruelty

Economic Policies and Famine

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice