How does utilitarianism relate to consequentialism?

Utilitarianism is a specific type of consequentialism. Consequentialism posits that the morality of an action is determined solely by its outcomes or consequences, and utilitarianism applies this by focusing on maximizing overall utility, often defined as happiness or well-being.

What distinguishes utilitarianism from other forms of consequentialism like egoism or altruism?

Unlike egoism (which focuses on the agent's self-interest) or altruism (which focuses on the interests of others without necessarily equal consideration), utilitarianism considers the interests of all sentient beings equally when determining the right course of action.

What are the main types of utilitarianism based on how utility is maximized?

Proponents of utilitarianism disagree on whether actions should be judged by their individual consequences (act utilitarianism) or by whether they conform to rules that maximize utility (rule utilitarianism). There is also debate on whether to maximize total utility or average utility within a population.

Who is credited with founding modern utilitarianism, and what was his key work?

Jeremy Bentham is credited with founding modern utilitarianism. His seminal work, 'An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,' printed in 1780 and published in 1789, laid out many of the core tenets of the philosophy.

How did the term 'utilitarianism' become popularized?

While Jeremy Bentham used the term 'utilitarian,' it was his successor, John Stuart Mill, who popularized it. Mill adopted the term from a passing expression in John Galt's novel 'Annals of the Parish' and used it extensively in his own influential work, 'Utilitarianism.'

What are some of the pre-modern philosophical ideas that influenced utilitarianism?

Utilitarian ideas can be traced back to ancient Greek hedonists like Aristippus and Epicurus, who viewed happiness as the highest good. The Chinese philosopher Mozi developed a consequentialist theory focused on maximizing benefit and minimizing harm, and the medieval Indian philosopher Shantideva also wrote about alleviating suffering and promoting happiness.

What contribution did Francis Hutcheson make to the development of utilitarian thought?

Francis Hutcheson, in his 1725 work 'An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue,' proposed that the morality of an action is proportionate to the happiness it brings to the greatest number of people. He even included mathematical algorithms to calculate morality, foreshadowing Bentham's later 'hedonic calculus.'

How did David Hume view the role of utility in morality?

David Hume, in 'An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,' stated that public utility is a principal consideration in determining morality. He argued that when moral disputes arise, they can be resolved by examining the true interests of humankind, suggesting that our moral judgments should align with what promotes societal well-being.

What was William Paley's contribution to utilitarianism?

William Paley developed and popularized theological utilitarianism, arguing that actions are right if they are expedient, meaning they have good consequences. His book, 'The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy,' was widely influential and considered a foundational text in English utilitarianism.

What is Jeremy Bentham's 'hedonic calculus'?

Bentham's hedonic calculus is a method for measuring the value of pleasures and pains. It considers factors such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity (nearness), fecundity (chance of being followed by similar sensations), purity (chance of not being followed by opposite sensations), and extent (number of people affected).

How did Bentham distinguish between 'evils of the first and second order' in relation to law-breaking?

Bentham distinguished between 'evils of the first order,' which are the immediate consequences of an action, and 'evils of the second order,' which are the broader societal effects like alarm and danger. He argued that the latter, often stemming from the violation of a necessary general rule, is why actions like theft are crimes, even if the immediate benefit to the thief outweighs the immediate harm to the victim.

How did John Stuart Mill modify utilitarianism regarding the measurement of pleasure?

John Stuart Mill rejected a purely quantitative measurement of pleasure, introducing the concept of 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures. He argued that pleasures of the intellect, feelings, and moral sentiments are intrinsically more desirable and valuable than purely physical pleasures, even if the latter are more intense.

What was Mill's argument for the superiority of higher pleasures?

Mill contended that individuals acquainted with both higher and lower pleasures would decisively prefer the higher ones, even if accompanied by more discontent. He famously stated it is 'better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied,' suggesting that the quality of pleasure matters more than the quantity.

What are the alleged logical fallacies in Mill's 'proof' of the principle of utility?

Critics argue that Mill's 'proof' commits the naturalistic fallacy (deducing 'ought' from 'is'), an equivocation fallacy (moving from 'desirable' as 'capable of being desired' to 'desirable' as 'ought to be desired'), and the fallacy of composition (assuming that because individuals desire their own happiness, the aggregate of all persons desires the general happiness).

How did Henry Sidgwick attempt to reconcile utilitarianism with common-sense morality?

Henry Sidgwick, in 'The Methods of Ethics,' sought to ground utilitarianism in common-sense morality. He identified abstract principles from common sense, such as the principle of impartiality and the need for consistency, which he found to be compatible with utilitarianism, thus suggesting a harmony between the two.

What is 'ideal utilitarianism,' and who is associated with it?

Ideal utilitarianism, associated with G. E. Moore, rejects the idea that pleasure is the sole measure of good. It argues that other values, such as knowledge, love, and beauty, have intrinsic moral worth and should be maximized, even if they don't directly lead to pleasure.

What is R. M. Hare's concept of 'two-level utilitarianism'?

R. M. Hare proposed two-level utilitarianism, distinguishing between a 'critical' level (used by 'archangels' with perfect knowledge to set general moral rules) and an 'intuitive' level (used by 'proles' or ordinary people who follow these rules). This approach aims to balance the theoretical benefits of utilitarian calculation with the practical need for reliable moral rules.

What is preference utilitarianism, and who are its key proponents?

Preference utilitarianism, advocated by thinkers like John Harsanyi, R. M. Hare, and Peter Singer, holds that the right action is the one that fulfills the preferences of those affected. It distinguishes between 'manifest' preferences (based on observed behavior) and 'true' preferences (what individuals would want if fully informed and rational).

What is negative utilitarianism, and what is its central tenet?

Negative utilitarianism, proposed by Karl Popper, shifts the focus from maximizing happiness to minimizing suffering. It argues that reducing pain is ethically more urgent than increasing pleasure, and some versions suggest that the most effective way to minimize suffering might be to end all sentient life.

What is motive utilitarianism, and how does it differ from act and rule utilitarianism?

Motive utilitarianism, proposed by Robert Merrihew Adams, suggests that the utility calculus should be used to select motives and dispositions, which then guide actions. This differs from act utilitarianism (judging actions directly) and rule utilitarianism (judging actions by rules) by focusing on the underlying motivations that lead to actions.

What is the 'sheriff scenario,' and what criticism of utilitarianism does it illustrate?

The 'sheriff scenario,' famously presented by H. J. McCloskey, describes a sheriff framing an innocent person to prevent riots. This scenario illustrates the criticism that utilitarianism, particularly act utilitarianism, might justify unjust actions like punishing the innocent if doing so maximizes overall utility.

How does Dostoevsky's 'The Brothers Karamazov' present a challenge to utilitarianism?

In 'The Brothers Karamazov,' Ivan challenges Alyosha with a scenario where building a happy society requires torturing one innocent child. This thought experiment questions whether the end goal of maximizing happiness justifies means that involve extreme injustice and suffering, even for a single individual.

What is the 'demandingness objection' against utilitarianism?

The demandingness objection argues that utilitarianism, particularly act utilitarianism, requires individuals to make excessive sacrifices for the greater good, often at the expense of their own well-being, personal relationships, or even basic rights. It suggests that morality should not demand such extreme austerity.

How does Peter Singer respond to the demandingness objection?

Peter Singer acknowledges the demanding nature of utilitarianism but argues that moral obligations should not be based on instinctual preferences or proximity. He suggests that we ought to help those in need, even strangers far away, and that distance or community membership does not fundamentally alter our moral obligations.

What criticism does John Rawls raise regarding utilitarianism's aggregation of utility?

John Rawls criticized utilitarianism for not taking the distinction between persons seriously. He argued that utilitarianism treats individuals merely as vessels for utility, potentially justifying sacrifices of one person's well-being for the greater happiness of others, which he found problematic.

What is the 'repugnant conclusion' associated with total utilitarianism?

The 'repugnant conclusion,' discussed by Derek Parfit, arises from total utilitarianism. It suggests that a world with a vast population, each experiencing a very low but positive level of happiness, could be considered better than a smaller population with a higher average level of happiness, which many find counter-intuitive.

How do Bentham and Mill address the issue of motives versus intentions in morality?

Bentham and Mill distinguished between motives (which they believed do not determine morality) and intentions (which they considered crucial for the morality of an action). They argued that while the motive behind an action might affect the agent's character, it is the intention, or the foresight of consequences, that defines the moral rightness or wrongness of the act itself.

What is the utilitarian perspective on the moral status of non-human animals?

Utilitarianism, particularly as articulated by Bentham, Mill, and Singer, extends moral consideration to all sentient beings capable of suffering. Bentham famously asked, 'Can they suffer?' rather than 'Can they reason?', indicating that the capacity for suffering is the basis for moral consideration, regardless of species.

How does Peter Singer argue against speciesism within a utilitarian framework?

Peter Singer argues that speciesism, the discrimination against non-human animals based solely on their species, is ethically unjustified within utilitarianism. He contends that the suffering of any sentient being should be given equal consideration, and that humans often exhibit speciesist bias by prioritizing their own species' interests over greater interests of other species.

What is the utilitarian approach to criminal justice?

Utilitarianism views criminal justice as a means to maximize overall welfare. It justifies punishment through deterrence (discouraging future crime), rehabilitation (improving offenders), and incapacitation (preventing offenders from causing further harm), with the ultimate goal of reducing crime and increasing societal well-being.

What is 'wealth maximization' in the context of legal and economic analysis?

Wealth maximization, popularized by Richard Posner, is an economic approach that deems policies or rules socially desirable if they increase aggregate wealth, often measured by willingness-to-pay. Unlike strict Pareto improvements, it allows for changes that might harm some individuals, provided the potential gains could theoretically compensate the losers.

What is the utilitarian perspective on global poverty?

Many utilitarian philosophers, like Peter Singer, argue that individuals in developed countries have a moral obligation to alleviate extreme poverty globally. They advocate for donating to effective charities, as the utility gained by those in dire need far outweighs the marginal benefit received by those in comfort, aligning with the principle of maximizing the greatest good.

What is the 'utilitarian rule' in social choice theory?

The utilitarian rule, also known as the max-sum rule, is a principle in social choice theory that dictates society should select the alternative that maximizes the sum of utilities across all individuals. This rule is a formal mathematical representation of utilitarian philosophy.

What are some criticisms leveled against utilitarianism's value theory?

Critics like Thomas Carlyle and Karl Marx have argued that utilitarianism's focus on utility reduces complex human experiences to mere calculations of pleasure and pain. They also suggest it fails to account for the diverse values and socioeconomic contexts that shape individual well-being and happiness.

How does Pope John Paul II critique utilitarianism?

Pope John Paul II, from a personalist perspective, critiqued utilitarianism for potentially treating persons as objects of use, similar to things. He argued that a 'civilization of production and of use' risks devaluing individuals in its pursuit of utility.

What is the 'special obligations' criticism of utilitarianism?

The 'special obligations' criticism argues that utilitarianism fails to recognize the moral significance of personal relationships and duties, such as those to family or friends. It suggests that utilitarianism's impartial calculation of the greatest good might wrongly dismiss these deeply held obligations.

What is the 'calculation time' objection to utilitarianism, and how was it addressed?

The 'calculation time' objection posits that calculating the consequences of every action is impractical and time-consuming, potentially missing opportunities to act. Mill responded that past experience provides 'rules of thumb' or secondary principles that guide actions efficiently, similar to how navigators use pre-calculated tables rather than recalculating celestial data for every journey.

What is the distinction between 'average' and 'total' happiness in utilitarian calculations?

Total utilitarianism aims to maximize the sum of happiness across all individuals, potentially leading to the 'repugnant conclusion' where a very large population with minimal happiness is preferred over a smaller, happier one. Average utilitarianism, conversely, seeks to maximize the average happiness per person, which can lead to issues like devaluing large populations or eliminating those with below-average happiness.

Utilitarianism Wiki: The Calculus of Conscience: Understanding Utilitarianism

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Introduction to Utilitarianism

Core Principle

In ethical philosophy, utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that advocate for actions which maximize happiness and well-being for all affected individuals. Essentially, it posits that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number.

Consequentialism

Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism, meaning it judges the morality of an action solely based on its outcomes or consequences. Unlike egoism or altruism, it considers the interests of all sentient beings equally, aiming for universal well-being.

Foundational Concepts

Key to utilitarian thought is the concept of "utility," often defined by Jeremy Bentham as the capacity of actions or objects to produce benefits like pleasure and happiness, or to prevent harm like pain and unhappiness.

Historical Roots

Ancient Precursors

While modern utilitarianism emerged in the 18th century, its seeds can be found in ancient philosophies. Thinkers like Aristippus and Epicurus explored hedonism, and Aristotle discussed eudaimonia. The ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi proposed consequentialist ideas focused on maximizing societal benefit.

18th Century Foundations

Francis Hutcheson introduced the phrase "greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." John Gay developed early systematic utilitarian ethics, grounding it in theology. David Hume emphasized public utility in moral determinations, and William Paley popularized utilitarianism in England, making it a staple in academic discourse.

Key Intellectuals

Jeremy Bentham

Considered the founder of modern utilitarianism, Bentham proposed the "principle of utility" and the "hedonic calculus" to measure pleasures and pains. He posited that nature governs humanity through pain and pleasure, which dictate our actions and the aims of legislation.

John Stuart Mill

A prominent successor to Bentham, Mill refined utilitarianism by introducing the distinction between "higher" and "lower" pleasures, arguing for the intrinsic superiority of intellectual and moral pleasures. His work, Utilitarianism, remains a seminal text.

Henry Sidgwick

Sidgwick's The Methods of Ethics is seen as a culmination of classical utilitarianism. He sought to reconcile utilitarianism with common-sense morality, exploring methods like intuitionism and hedonism, and highlighting the potential conflict between egoism and universal well-being.

Modern Proponents

Contemporary philosophers like R. M. Hare, Peter Singer, and Richard Brandt have further developed utilitarian thought. Hare introduced two-level utilitarianism, while Singer champions preference utilitarianism and advocates for equal consideration of all sentient beings, including animals.

Varieties of Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism

This approach dictates that the right action in any situation is the one that maximizes utility. Each action is evaluated independently based on its consequences.

Rule Utilitarianism

Rule utilitarianism suggests that the right action is the one that conforms to a rule that, if generally followed, would maximize utility. This aims to address criticisms regarding justice and consistency.

Two-Level Utilitarianism

Proposed by R. M. Hare, this view distinguishes between critical thinking (for formulating rules) and intuitive thinking (for following rules in everyday life), suggesting a practical balance between act and rule approaches.

Preference Utilitarianism

This variant focuses on fulfilling the preferences of sentient beings rather than maximizing pleasure or happiness directly. It considers what individuals would want if they were fully informed and rational.

Negative Utilitarianism

Negative utilitarianism prioritizes minimizing suffering over maximizing happiness. Karl Popper suggested replacing "maximize pleasure" with "minimize pain" to avoid potential totalitarian outcomes.

Core Concepts

Utility

The fundamental concept, representing happiness, pleasure, well-being, or the satisfaction of preferences. The goal is to maximize this across all affected individuals.

Pleasure & Happiness

Central to classical utilitarianism, these are considered the ultimate goods. Bentham's "hedonic calculus" attempted to quantify these based on factors like intensity, duration, and certainty.

Pain & Suffering

The inverse of pleasure, these are the ultimate evils to be minimized. Negative utilitarianism places particular emphasis on reducing suffering.

Equal Consideration

A cornerstone principle stating that the interests and well-being of all sentient beings should be considered equally, without arbitrary bias towards oneself, family, or species.

Criticisms and Responses

Quantifying Utility

A significant challenge is the difficulty in objectively quantifying and comparing subjective states like happiness or well-being across different individuals. This requires making potentially arbitrary trade-offs.

Justice and Rights

Critics argue utilitarianism can justify actions that violate fundamental principles of justice or individual rights if they lead to a greater overall good (e.g., the "sheriff scenario" or "The Brothers Karamazov" thought experiment).

Demandingness

Act utilitarianism is often criticized for being excessively demanding, requiring individuals to constantly sacrifice their own interests and well-being for the greater good, leaving little room for personal projects or relationships.

Predicting Consequences

The practical application of utilitarianism is hindered by the inherent difficulty in accurately predicting all the long-term consequences of any given action.

Aggregation Problem

Concerns arise about how to aggregate individual utilities into a collective measure. Critics like John Rawls argue that utilitarianism fails to adequately distinguish between persons, treating them as mere vessels for utility.

Applications and Relevance

World Poverty

Utilitarian principles inform movements like effective altruism, advocating for significant donations to highly effective charities to alleviate extreme poverty, based on the idea that money can generate far greater happiness for those in need.

Criminal Justice

Utilitarianism justifies punishment based on its deterrent effect, rehabilitation potential, and incapacitation of offenders, aiming to maximize societal welfare by reducing crime.

Social Choice Theory

The "utilitarian rule" in social choice theory proposes selecting alternatives that maximize the sum of individual utilities, providing a mathematical framework for collective decision-making.

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References

Mill, John Stuart. 1861. Utilitarianism. n1.

Goodman, Charles. 2016. "ÅÄntideva", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 31 August 2020.

Ashcraft, Richard (1991) John Locke: Critical Assessments (Critical assessments of leading political philosophers), Routledge, p. 691

Rosen, Frederick. 2003. Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge. p. 132.

Schneewind, J. B. 1977. Sidgwick's Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 122.

Hutcheson, Francis. 1726. "Introduction." In An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue.

Bayles, M. D., ed. 1968. Contemporary Utilitarianism. Doubleday: Anchor Books.

Mill, John Stuart. The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill 17, edited by J. M. Robson. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1963â91. p. 1881.

Lyons, David. 1965. Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism.

Fabian, Fricke. 2002. "Verschiedene Versionen des negativen Utilitarismus." Kriterion 15(1): p. 14.

Gustav, Arrhenius. 2000. "Future Generations, A Challenge for Moral Theory" (FD-Diss.). Uppsala: Uppsala University, Department of Philosophy. p. 100.

Fricke Fabian (2002), Verschiedene Versionen des negativen Utilitarismus, Kriterion, vol.15, no.1, pp. 20â22

Bruno Contestabile: Negative Utilitarianism and Buddhist Intuition. In: Contemporary Buddhism Vol.15, Issue 2, S. 298â311, London 2014.

Robert Merrihew Adams, Motive Utilitarianism, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 73, No. 14, On Motives and Morals (12 August 1976), pp. 467â81

Goodin, Robert E. "Utilitarianism as a Public Philosophy." Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Public Policy. Cambridge University Press.

Adams, Robert Merrihew. 1976. "Motive Utilitarianism. The Journal of Philosophy 73(14).

John M. Taurek, "Should the Numbers Count?", Philosophy and Public Affairs, 6:4 (Summer 1977), pp. 293â316.

Parfit, Derek. 1978. "Innumerate Ethics." Philosophy & Public Affairs 7(4):285â301.

Lawlor, Rob. 2006. "Taurek, Numbers and Probabilities." Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 9(2):149â66.

Das Kapital Volume 1, Chapter 24, endnote 50

Arrhenius, Gustaf and Krister Bykvist (1995) Future Generations and Interpersonal Compensations: Moral Aspects of Energy Use, Uppsala: Uppsala University

Peter Singer: The why and how of effective altruism | Talk Video. TED.com.

A full list of references for this article are available at the Utilitarianism Wikipedia page

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The Calculus of Conscience

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Introduction to Utilitarianism ⚖️

⚖️ Core Principle

📈 Consequentialism

💡 Foundational Concepts

Historical Roots ⏳

🏛️ Ancient Precursors

📜 18th Century Foundations

Key Intellectuals 🧠

👨‍⚖️ Jeremy Bentham

✍️ John Stuart Mill

🧐 Henry Sidgwick

🗣️ Modern Proponents

Varieties of Utilitarianism 📚

🎯 Act Utilitarianism

📜 Rule Utilitarianism

⚖️ Two-Level Utilitarianism

❤️ Preference Utilitarianism

➖ Negative Utilitarianism

Core Concepts 💡

➕ Utility

😊 Pleasure & Happiness

🤕 Pain & Suffering

🤝 Equal Consideration

Criticisms and Responses ❓

🔢 Quantifying Utility

⚖️ Justice and Rights

😥 Demandingness

🤔 Predicting Consequences

👥 Aggregation Problem

Applications and Relevance 🌍

💰 World Poverty

⚖️ Criminal Justice

📊 Social Choice Theory

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction to Utilitarianism

Core Principle

Consequentialism

Foundational Concepts

Historical Roots

Ancient Precursors

18th Century Foundations

Key Intellectuals

Jeremy Bentham

John Stuart Mill

Henry Sidgwick

Modern Proponents

Varieties of Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism

Rule Utilitarianism

Two-Level Utilitarianism

Preference Utilitarianism

Negative Utilitarianism

Core Concepts

Utility

Pleasure & Happiness

Pain & Suffering

Equal Consideration

Criticisms and Responses

Quantifying Utility

Justice and Rights

Demandingness

Predicting Consequences

Aggregation Problem

Applications and Relevance

World Poverty

Criminal Justice

Social Choice Theory

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice