What is vaudeville, and when was it popular in North America?

Vaudeville is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment that gained significant popularity in the United States and Canada, primarily from the early 1880s until the early 1930s. It is often considered analogous to the music hall tradition found in Victorian Britain, offering a diverse array of acts to audiences.

What types of acts were typically featured in a North American vaudeville performance?

A typical North American vaudeville performance comprised a series of distinct, unrelated acts presented together on a single bill. These acts encompassed a wide range of entertainment, including popular and classical musicians, singers, dancers, comedians, trained animals, magicians, ventriloquists, strongmen, impersonators (both female and male), acrobats, clowns, illustrated songs, jugglers, one-act plays or scenes from plays, athletes, lecturing celebrities, minstrels, and even films. Performers in this genre were commonly known as 'vaudevillians'.

From what diverse sources did vaudeville develop?

Vaudeville evolved from a variety of entertainment forms, including the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows, dime museums, and literary American burlesque. These earlier forms contributed to the rich tapestry of acts that would eventually define vaudeville as a distinct genre.

When did vaudeville begin to emerge, and what was its initial form called?

Vaudeville made its subtle initial appearances in the early 1860s, not immediately as a widespread form of entertainment. It gradually developed from concert saloons and variety halls throughout the 1870s and 1880s, eventually maturing into a more refined version known as 'Polite Vaudeville.'

What was the entertainment landscape like in the U.S. before the American Civil War, prior to the rise of vaudeville?

Before the American Civil War, entertainment in the U.S. existed on a different scale, with similar variety theatre already present in Europe. In the early 19th century, American theatergoers could experience performances that combined Shakespearean plays, acrobatics, singing, dancing, and comedy. As time progressed, various forms of diversified amusement became available, such as touring circuses, dime museums, and 'cleaner' variety entertainment in amusement parks, riverboats, and town halls, contrasting with the more risqué offerings of saloons, music halls, and burlesque houses.

What significant influence did the minstrel show have on 19th-century American entertainment?

The minstrel show, another type of variety performance, rose to immense popularity in the 1840s and was described by Nick Tosches as 'the heart of 19th-century show business.' It was considered the first widespread and purely American mass culture emanation, significantly influencing the entertainment landscape that would eventually give rise to vaudeville.

How did Tony Pastor contribute to the development of 'polite' vaudeville?

From the mid-1860s, impresario Tony Pastor, a former singing circus clown who became a prominent variety theater manager, began to cater to middle-class audiences in his New York City theaters by featuring 'polite' variety programs. He opened his first 'Opera House' in 1865 and later moved to Broadway and then Fourteenth Street. Pastor started using the term 'vaudeville' in early 1876, and to attract women and families, he prohibited liquor sales, removed bawdy content, and even offered gifts like coal and hams to attendees. His successful approach was soon adopted by other managers, helping to shape vaudeville's family-friendly image.

What was the typical structure of a vaudeville performance bill, as illustrated by the Temple Theatre in Detroit in 1902?

A typical vaudeville performance bill, such as one from the Temple Theatre in Detroit in 1902, was strategically arranged. It usually began with a 'dumb' act, like acrobats, to allow patrons to find their seats without missing crucial dialogue. Stronger acts were placed in the second and penultimate positions to maintain audience engagement, while the weakest act was reserved for the very end to encourage patrons to leave. These bills often showcased a mix of 'lowbrow' popular entertainment, such as trained animals, alongside 'highbrow' classical acts like opera vocalists and classical musicians, demonstrating vaudeville's broad appeal.

Who were B. F. Keith and E. F. Albee, and what was their impact on vaudeville's success?

B. F. Keith was an impresario who significantly expanded vaudeville by building an empire of theaters, starting in Boston, and bringing the genre to the United States and Canada. E. F. Albee, his adoptive grandson, later managed this chain to its peak success. Their circuits, like Keith-Albee, were a major economic innovation, creating a network of allied vaudeville houses that streamlined booking by contracting acts for regional and national tours, which could last from a few weeks to two years. Albee also championed 'polite' entertainment, ensuring shows were inoffensive to all family members, though performers sometimes challenged this censorship.

How did B. F. Keith enforce his policy of 'polite entertainment' among performers?

B. F. Keith implemented strict measures to uphold modesty and politeness in his shows. He posted warnings backstage, threatening immediate cancellation and permanent expulsion from the Keith Circuit for any performer using sacrilegious or suggestive language, such as 'slob,' 'son of a gun,' or 'hully gee.' Theater managers would also send 'blue envelopes' with instructions to omit or substitute suggestive lines in songs. Performers, fearing the loss of their careers, generally adhered to these directives.

By the late 1890s, what were the key characteristics of the vaudeville industry?

By the late 1890s, the vaudeville industry was highly organized, featuring large circuits, numerous theaters of varying sizes in most major locations, standardized booking procedures, a vast pool of skilled acts, and a dedicated national audience. This institutionalization allowed vaudeville to become a dominant form of entertainment across North America.

Which were some of the biggest vaudeville circuits during its peak?

During its peak, some of the biggest vaudeville circuits included Martin Beck's Orpheum Circuit, which incorporated in 1919 and encompassed 45 vaudeville theaters in 36 cities across the United States and Canada, along with interests in two other vaudeville circuits. Another major player was Alexander Pantages, who at his height owned over 30 vaudeville theaters and managed approximately 60 more in both the U.S. and Canada.

What was the significance of Peoria, Illinois, in the vaudeville circuit?

Peoria, Illinois, held a significant place in the vaudeville circuit, with the saying that if an act could succeed there, it would succeed anywhere. This led to the phrase 'Will it play in Peoria?' becoming a metaphor for whether something would appeal to the American mainstream public. This highlights Peoria's role as a litmus test for popular appeal in the entertainment industry.

What were the different economic levels of vaudeville performance, and how did performers advance?

Vaudeville operated across multiple economic strata and auditorium sizes, categorized into the 'small time,' 'medium time,' and 'big time.' The 'small time' involved lower-paying contracts for more frequent performances in less refined, often converted theaters. The 'medium time' offered moderate wages for two daily performances in purpose-built theaters. The 'big time' represented the pinnacle, with potential earnings of several thousand dollars per week in large, urban theaters frequented by the middle and upper-middle classes. Performers would advance through these levels as their renown grew and they cultivated regional and national followings, eventually reaching the less demanding conditions and better pay of the big time.

What was considered the 'capital' of big-time vaudeville, and who built it?

The capital of big-time vaudeville was New York City's Palace Theatre, often simply called 'The Palace' by vaudevillians. It was built by Martin Beck in 1913 and operated by B. F. Keith. The Palace was renowned for featuring inventive novelty acts, national celebrities, and masters of vaudeville performance, serving as the ultimate achievement for many performers.

What was a standard show bill at a major vaudeville theater like the Palace?

A standard show bill at a major vaudeville theater would typically commence with a sketch, followed by a 'single' (an individual male or female performer). Next would be an 'alley-oop' (an acrobatic act), then another single, and another sketch, possibly a blackface comedy. The subsequent acts would vary, including musicals, jugglers, and song-and-dance singles, concluding with a grand finale, either a musical or drama, featuring the entire company. These shows showcased stars such as Eubie Blake, Harry Houdini, and Baby Rose Marie.

How many people were employed by the vaudeville industry at its height, and what were their typical working conditions?

At its peak, the vaudeville industry employed over twelve thousand people across its entire operation. Entertainers typically spent 42 weeks a year on the road, performing within a specific 'Circuit,' which was an individual theater chain belonging to a major company. This extensive touring schedule was a defining characteristic of a vaudevillian's career.

How did vaudeville cater to specific demographic groups, and what was its social standing?

Vaudeville adapted its offerings to specific audiences, often featuring houses and circuits tailored to certain demographic groups. Black patrons, who were frequently segregated in white-oriented theaters, had their own smaller circuits. Similarly, speakers of Italian and Yiddish had their own circuits, which led to acts like 'minstrel shows of antebellum America' and Yiddish theater. Many ethnic families participated in this entertainment, using the traveling lifestyle as a continuation of their immigrant experiences, allowing them to assimilate while introducing aspects of their culture. White-oriented regional circuits, such as New England's 'Peanut Circuit,' also served as training grounds for new artists and places for established acts to refine material. At its height, vaudeville was a premiere public gathering place, rivaled only by churches and public schools.

What was the concept of 'blue material' in vaudeville, and how did it relate to the female figure?

The concept of 'blue material' in vaudeville referred to provocative subject matter, often involving suggestive lyrics or unclad bodies, which some managers strategically used as a marketing tool to attract diverse audiences. Historians suggest that the vaudeville stage became a 'highly sexualized space' where the female body was objectified as a 'sexual delight' and a 'sexual spectacle.' This focus on female physical appeal, often through tight gowns and revealing attire, sometimes overshadowed talent, leading to acts like sister acts being more popular than brother acts, and performers like Julie Mackey and Gibson's Bathing Girls emphasizing their looks over their skills.

What role did women play in vaudeville, particularly in the 1920s?

In the 1920s, women's roles in vaudeville expanded significantly, with announcements for all-girl bands appearing in industry publications. Bands like The Ingenues and The Dixie Sweethearts gained publicity, alongside other 'all-girl Revue' groups. While feminist theory suggests that similar trends in theater and film objectified women, vaudeville also provided a platform for many women to achieve success on stage alongside their male counterparts, challenging traditional gender roles in public life.

Who was Marie Dressler, and what was her career trajectory in vaudeville and beyond?

Leila Marie Koerber, known as Marie Dressler, was a Canadian actress who excelled in vaudeville comedy and later won an Academy Award for Best Actress. She began her career at fourteen, lying about her age, and found success with her comedic timing and physical comedy, often carrying her male co-stars. Despite a desire to become a serious actress on Broadway, she was advised to stick to comedy. She starred in some films but eventually returned to vaudeville, her original career path.

Who was Trixie Friganza, and what were her notable contributions to vaudeville and social causes?

Trixie Friganza, born Delia O'Callaghan, was a famous vaudevillian actress known for her catchphrase, 'You know Trixie with her bag of tricks.' She started in opera to support her family, secretly, as female performers were frowned upon. She achieved acclaim in comedy due to her willingness to fill in for ill performers and often highlighted her 'plus-size' figure, calling herself the 'perfect forty-six.' Friganza was also a poet and writer, using her performances to raise money for the poor and disenfranchised, and publicly advocated for women's equality and self-acceptance.

Who was Betty Felsen, and what were her achievements in ballet and vaudeville?

Betty Felsen was an American ballerina, vaudeville star, and teacher, born in Chicago in 1905. She began ballet lessons at eight, performing solo dances, and by 1919, she was a member of the Chicago Opera's Pavley-Oukrainsky Ballet corps de ballet. From 1920 to 1922, she was a ballerina soloist, touring North America. Under the name Buddye Felsen, she starred in the show 'Rainbo Trail' in 1922-1923. From 1923 to 1927, she partnered with Jack Broderick, performing on the B.F. Keith and Pantages vaudeville circuits, evolving their act to include over twenty dancers, an orchestra, and elaborate sets. They starred in musical productions like 'Mirage de Paris' and 'Ballet Caprice,' with the latter's final performance at Broadway's Palace Theater in 1928.

Who was May Irwin, and how did she achieve unique success in vaudeville?

May Irwin, originally Ada Campbell, was a famous comedienne who worked from approximately 1875 to 1914. She began her stage career at thirteen with her older sister in a singing act called the 'Irwin Sisters.' After their act gained popularity in vaudeville and burlesque, Irwin pursued a solo career, adopting African-American-influenced songs and even writing her own. She introduced her signature song, 'The Bully Song,' in a Broadway show and found unique success by experimenting with improvisational comedy, eventually taking her performances to the U.K.

What was Sophie Tucker's experience with Blackface in vaudeville?

Sophie Tucker, a Russian Jewish immigrant, was initially advised by promoter Chris Brown that she was not attractive enough for show business without performing in Blackface. She followed this advice for her first two years on stage until she decided to perform without it, achieving much greater success by being herself, particularly with her song 'Some of These Days.'

Which notable 20th-century women performers started their careers in vaudeville?

Several prominent 20th-century women performers began their careers in vaudeville, including comedienne Moms Mabley, who later achieved mainstream success, and blues singers such as Ma Rainey, Ida Cox, and Bessie Smith. Additionally, women-led touring companies like Black Patti's Troubadours, the Whitman Sisters, and the Hyers Sisters were popular acts.

How did women contribute to the business side of vaudeville?

Beyond performing, some women also played significant roles on the business side of vaudeville. Examples include Amanda Thorpe, a white woman who established a black theater in Virginia, and the Griffin Sisters, who managed several theaters in their efforts to create a Black Vaudeville circuit. These women were instrumental in the organizational and entrepreneurial aspects of the industry.

How did Black performers and patrons participate in vaudeville, and what challenges did they face?

Black performers and patrons were part of a racially segregated vaudeville circuit. While popular acts like Lewis and Walker, Ernest Hogan, Irving Jones, and the Hyers Sisters performed for both white and Black audiences, early vaudeville shows for white audiences typically limited Black acts to one per show. Black performers also encountered discrimination in restaurants and lodging. Despite these challenges, Black entertainers and entrepreneurs like The Whitman Sisters, Pat Chapelle, and John Isham created and managed their own touring companies. Others, such as Sherman H. Dudley and the Griffin Sisters, owned and managed theaters, establishing Black Vaudeville circuits. In the 1920s, many bookings for Black performers were managed by the Theatre Owners Booking Association.

How did African Americans challenge Blackface stereotypes through vaudeville, and what cultural phenomena did they influence?

African Americans actively challenged the prevailing Blackface stereotypes, often performed by white artists, by bringing their own authenticity and unique style to the stage. They composed original music, comedy, and dance routines, thereby laying the foundational groundwork for distinctly American cultural phenomena such as blues, jazz, ragtime, and tap dance. This artistic expression allowed them to reclaim their narrative and contribute significantly to American popular culture.

Who were some notable Black entertainers and songwriters in vaudeville?

Notable Black entertainers in vaudeville included comedians Bert Williams and George Walker, and dancer/choreographer Ada Overton Walker. Black songwriters and composers like Bob Cole, Ernest Hogan, Irving Jones, Rosamond Johnson, George Johnson, Tom Lemonier, Gussie L. Davis, and Chris Smith wrote many songs popularized by white singers, paving the way for African-American musical theater.

How did vaudeville reflect the urban inner-city culture and immigrant experience in America?

Vaudeville served as a mirror to the evolving urban inner-city culture and the interactions between its diverse operators and audiences. It provided an avenue for expression and understanding of the often hostile immigrant experience, transforming it into comic relief on stage. This included the perpetuation of ethnic stereotypes, which were easily recognizable by their distinct cultural attributes and how they differed from mainstream American identity. The working class constituted two-thirds of the typical vaudeville audience, making it a highly accessible and reflective form of entertainment for urban populations.

What role did Irish Americans play in vaudeville's portrayal of immigrant stereotypes?

Irish Americans, who formed a large portion of mid-19th century immigration, became prominent in vaudeville as both curators and actors. Having settled earlier and being native English speakers, they leveraged these advantages to assert their position in the immigrant racial hierarchy. They created a unique ethnic interplay by using self-deprecation as humor and interpreting immigrant cultural images for American popular culture. They often portrayed 'greenhorn' depictions of newly arrived immigrants, and unfortunately, also promoted black-face minstrelsy to position African Americans below them in the urban social hierarchy.

How did other ethnic groups respond to and utilize ethnic caricatures in vaudeville?

While Irish Americans were prominent in promoting ethnic stereotypes, other groups such as the Chinese, Italians, Germans, and Jews also utilized ethnic caricatures for their own comedic effect and as a means of self-understanding. These caricatures, which became a part of American humor, reflected the complex positive and negative interactions between ethnic groups in America's cities, helping to define their societal positions and showcasing aspirations for upward mobility, such as the Irish American ideal of transitioning from 'shanty' to 'lace curtain.'

What was the primary reason for vaudeville's decline in the early 20th century?

The most significant factor contributing to vaudeville's decline was the continuous growth of lower-priced cinema, particularly after the introduction of talking pictures in 1926. Movies offered a more affordable and accessible form of entertainment, drawing away audiences and performers from live theatrical performances. This shift was similar to how broadcast television later diminished the cultural and economic strength of cinema.

How did the advent of cinema impact vaudeville performers?

Lured by higher salaries and less demanding working conditions, many vaudeville performers and personalities, including Al Jolson, W. C. Fields, Mae West, Buster Keaton, and the Marx Brothers, transitioned to the new medium of cinema. In doing so, they often exhausted the novelty of an act that could have sustained them on tour for years in just a few moments of screen time. Later performers like Jack Benny and Bob Hope used vaudeville primarily as a launching pad for careers in film and other new venues, achieving national celebrity through these new media rather than live performance.

How did vaudeville entrepreneurs like Alexander Pantages adapt to the rise of motion pictures?

Vaudeville entrepreneurs like Alexander Pantages quickly recognized the importance of motion pictures. He began incorporating films into his shows as early as 1902. Later, he formed a partnership with Famous Players–Lasky, a major Hollywood production company affiliated with Paramount Pictures, demonstrating an early integration of film into the vaudeville business model.

What critical development in film technology sealed vaudeville's fate, according to historian John Kenrick?

According to historian John Kenrick, the introduction of talking pictures in 1926 was the critical development that sealed vaudeville's fate. This innovation removed the primary advantage live theatrical performance had over silent films: spoken dialogue. Kenrick noted that top vaudeville stars filming their acts for one-time payments inadvertently hastened vaudeville's demise, as smaller theaters could offer 'big time' performers on screen for a fraction of the cost of live talent. The RKO studios even converted the famed Orpheum vaudeville circuit into a chain of full-time movie theaters, effectively wiping out the half-century tradition of vaudeville within less than four years.

Besides cinema, what other factor contributed to vaudeville's decline in the late 1920s and 1930s?

In addition to the rise of cinema, the increasing availability of inexpensive radio receiver sets led to the rise of broadcast radio in the late 1920s, further contributing to vaudeville's decline. This new medium offered free entertainment directly into people's homes, reducing the demand for live performances. The economic pressures of the Great Depression in the 1930s also forced many theaters to economize, leading to the elimination of live acts.

What event is often considered the 'death knell' of vaudeville?

The shift of New York City's Palace Theatre, which was considered the center of vaudeville, to an exclusively cinema presentation on November 16, 1932, is often regarded as the symbolic 'death knell' of vaudeville. This event marked the definitive end of an era for the once-dominant live entertainment form.

Why was a large-scale renewal of vaudeville unrealistic after its decline?

Despite some talk of its resurrection in the 1930s and later, a large-scale renewal of vaudeville was deemed unrealistic due to the demise of its supporting infrastructure, specifically the circuits that managed tours and bookings. Furthermore, the higher costs associated with live performances compared to film and radio made a widespread comeback economically unfeasible.

What architectural style was associated with big-time vaudeville magnates like Alexander Pantages?

Big-time vaudeville magnates, such as Alexander Pantages, commissioned striking examples of Gilded Age theater architecture to showcase their wealth and ambition. Pantages frequently collaborated with architect B. Marcus Priteca, who, in turn, often worked with muralist Anthony Heinsbergen. Priteca developed an exotic, neo-classical style that Pantages himself referred to as 'Pantages Greek,' creating grand and distinctive venues for vaudeville performances.

How did small-time vaudeville theaters differ from the grand urban venues?

In contrast to the grand, commodious theaters of classic urban vaudeville, small-time vaudeville encompassed numerous more intimate and locally controlled houses. These venues were often converted saloons, rough-hewn theaters, or multi-purpose halls, catering to a diverse local clientele. Many small towns even had purpose-built theaters, such as the old-fashioned, wooden Grange Halls in northern New England, which featured creaky, dimly-lit stages and offered a range of local talent, child performers, contra-dances, and community events, alongside homemade foods.

How did vaudeville influence newer media like film, radio, and television?

Vaudeville played a crucial role in the success and development of newer media such as film, radio, and television. Comedies of the new era adopted many of the dramatic and musical elements from classic vaudeville acts. Film comedies from the 1920s to the 1940s utilized vaudeville talent and embraced its variety entertainment aesthetic, both in Hollywood and in Asia, including China. The rich repertoire of vaudeville was also a source for prime-time radio variety shows like 'The Rudy Vallée Show.' The multi-act format, with a single host introducing a series of acts, became a popular television style, evident in shows from 'The Milton Berle Show' in 1948 to 'Late Night with David Letterman' in the 1980s, and continuing with shows like 'Your Show of Shows' and 'The Ed Sullivan Show.'

What is the legacy of vaudeville in contemporary popular culture?

Vaudeville's legacy continues to resonate in North American popular culture, with references and distinctive argot still in use. Words like 'flop' and 'gag' originated during the vaudeville era and have become common American idioms. Vaudevillian techniques are frequently seen in modern television and movies, notably in global phenomena like TV shows such as 'America's Got Talent.' Even professional wrestling has seen a tag team in WWE named 'The Vaudevillains,' further illustrating its lasting cultural imprint.

What is Vaudeville Con, and when was it founded?

Vaudeville Con is a gathering dedicated to celebrating the history of vaudeville. It was founded in 2018 by film director Christopher Annino, known for his silent feature film 'Silent Times.' The inaugural meeting of Vaudeville Con took place in Pawcatuck, Connecticut.

Where are significant archives and collections related to vaudeville located?

Significant archives and collections related to vaudeville are housed in several locations. The records of the Tivoli Theatre, along with personal papers of vaudevillian performers and extensive costume and set design holdings, are at the State Library of Victoria in Melbourne, Australia, and the Performing Arts Collection at Arts Centre Melbourne. The American Vaudeville Museum, which holds one of the largest collections of vaudeville memorabilia, is located at the University of Arizona. The Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres in Toronto house the world's largest collection of vaudeville props and scenery. Additionally, the Benjamin Franklin Keith and Edward F. Albee Collection, containing managers' report books, is preserved at the University of Iowa.

What does the 1894 promotional poster for the Sandow Trocadero Vaudevilles depict?

The 1894 promotional poster for the Sandow Trocadero Vaudevilles showcases a diverse array of acts typical of the genre, including dancers, clowns, trapeze artists, costumed dogs, singers, and costumed actors. This visual representation highlights the variety and spectacle that vaudeville offered to its audiences.

What does the newspaper promotional for vaudeville character actor Charles Grapewin from around 1900 illustrate?

The newspaper promotional for vaudeville character actor Charles Grapewin, dating from approximately 1900, features an image of the actor. This type of promotional material was common in the era, used to advertise individual performers and their acts to the public, contributing to the star system of vaudeville.

What is depicted in the image related to Kirksville, Missouri?

The image shows 'The Opera' in Kirksville, Missouri, indicating that this venue was part of the Vaudeville circuit. This illustrates that vaudeville performances were not confined to large cities but also played in smaller towns and various types of venues across the country.

What does the 1913 how-to booklet for aspiring vaudevillians suggest about the industry?

The 1913 how-to booklet titled 'How to Enter Vaudeville' for would-be vaudevillians suggests that the industry was structured enough to offer guidance for aspiring performers. Its recent republication indicates a continued historical interest in the practical aspects of entering and succeeding in vaudeville during its heyday.

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What is Vaudeville?

A Tapestry of Talent

Vaudeville represents a distinct theatrical genre of variety entertainment that captivated audiences across the United States and Canada from the early 1880s through the early 1930s.^[2] It can be understood as a North American counterpart to the music hall tradition prevalent in Victorian Britain.^[3] A typical vaudeville performance was characterized by a diverse bill, featuring a succession of independent, unrelated acts.

The Vaudevillian Spectrum

The range of acts presented in vaudeville was extraordinarily broad, encompassing popular and classical musicians, singers, dancers, and comedians. Audiences might also witness trained animals, magicians, ventriloquists, strongmen, female and male impersonators, acrobats, clowns, illustrated songs, jugglers, one-act plays or scenes from longer dramas, athletes, lecturing celebrities, minstrels, and even early films. Performers in this dynamic genre were commonly known as "vaudevillians."

Heart of American Show Business

Drawing from a rich array of entertainment forms such as the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows, dime museums, and American burlesque, vaudeville quickly established itself as "the heart of American show business." For several decades, it stood as one of the most widely embraced forms of entertainment throughout North America, reflecting and shaping the popular culture of its era.^[4]

Etymology

Voice of the City

The precise etymology of the term "vaudeville" remains a subject of scholarly discussion. One prominent theory suggests its derivation from the French phrase voix de ville, which translates to 'voice of the city'. This interpretation implies a form of entertainment that captures the essence and diverse sounds of urban life.

Songs of Vire Valley

A second compelling hypothesis traces the term back to the 15th-century satirical songs of the poet Olivier Basselin, known as "Vau de Vire."^[5] Supporting this, science historian James Burke posits that "vaudeville" is a corruption of the French Vau de Vire, referring to the Vire River Valley in Normandy, France. This region was renowned for its boisterous drinking songs, a cultural tradition that Basselin was deeply associated with.^[6]

Historical Endorsement

The Oxford English Dictionary lends its authority to the vau de vire origin, suggesting it is a truncated form of chanson du Vau de Vire, meaning 'song of the Valley of the Vire'. Further solidifying this connection, Jean le Houx compiled these works around 1610 into a collection titled Le Livre des Chants nouveaux de Vaudevire, which is widely considered the direct precursor to the modern term "vaudeville."

Early Stages

Gradual Evolution

While subtle manifestations of variety entertainment emerged in the early 1860s, vaudeville did not immediately become a widespread form of public amusement. Instead, it underwent a gradual evolution from the more informal concert saloon and variety hall formats, maturing into its distinctive structure throughout the 1870s and 1880s. This refined iteration became known as "Polite Vaudeville," signaling a shift towards more family-friendly content.^[7]

Pre-Civil War Variety

Prior to the American Civil War, entertainment was organized differently. Europe had already seen similar variety theatre forms before 1860. In the United States, audiences in the early 19th century could enjoy diverse performances that might include Shakespearean plays, acrobatics, singing, dancing, and comedic acts.^[8]^[9] As the century progressed, the demand for varied amusement grew, leading to a proliferation of entertainment options.

Diverse Influences

Vaudeville synthesized elements from various itinerant amusements into a more stable, institutionalized form, primarily centered in America's burgeoning urban centers.^[13] Key influences included:

Traveling circuses and dime museums.
"Cleaner" variety shows found in amusement parks, riverboats, and town halls.
The minstrel show, which gained immense popularity in the 1840s and was considered "the heart of 19th-century show business."^[11]
"Dutch" (German or faux-German) minstrels and comedians.^[12]
Medicine shows, offering comedy, music, juggling, and novelty acts alongside product demonstrations.
"Wild West" shows, romanticizing the frontier with trick riding, music, and drama.

Tony Pastor's Innovation

A pivotal figure in vaudeville's development was impresario Tony Pastor, a former singing circus clown who became a prominent variety performer and manager. Recognizing the potential of the middle-class audience, Pastor began featuring "polite" variety programs in his New York City theaters starting in the mid-1860s.^[14] He explicitly banned liquor sales and removed bawdy material, even offering incentives like coal and hams to attract female and family audiences. Pastor's successful model, which he began calling "vaudeville" in early 1876,^[15] was soon emulated by other managers, laying the groundwork for the genre's widespread appeal.^[16]

Peak Popularity

National Circuits and Standardization

By the late 1890s, vaudeville had achieved significant industrial strength through the establishment of large circuits, standardized booking systems, and a vast pool of skilled performers. Figures like B. F. Keith, who built an empire of theaters starting in Boston, and E. F. Albee, who managed the chain to its zenith, were instrumental in this expansion. These circuits, such as the Keith-Albee chain, revolutionized the industry by contracting acts for regional and national tours, which could span from a few weeks to two years, replacing the chaotic single-theater booking system.

The "Polite" Ethos

Albee notably championed "polite entertainment," a commitment to shows that were inoffensive to men, women, and children alike. Acts that deviated from this ethos, for instance, by using words like "hell," faced admonishment and threats of cancellation. Backstage warnings were common, explicitly stating that suggestive or sacrilegious content would lead to immediate closure and blacklisting from the Keith Circuit.^[5] Despite these strictures, performers often subtly challenged this censorship, much to the audience's amusement. Ushers were also tasked with enforcing audience guidelines to maintain decorum.^[5]>

The Big Time and Beyond

At its peak, vaudeville operated across various economic strata and venue sizes. The "small time" offered lower-paying contracts for frequent performances in converted theaters, while the "medium time" provided moderate wages for two daily performances in purpose-built venues. The pinnacle was the "big time," where performers could earn thousands of dollars weekly in large urban theaters catering to the middle and upper-middle classes. New York City's Palace Theatre, built by Martin Beck in 1913, became the symbolic capital of the big time, showcasing inventive novelty acts, national celebrities, and vaudeville masters like Will Rogers.^[21] A typical show began with a sketch, followed by individual performers, acrobatic acts, and more sketches, culminating in a grand musical or dramatic finale. Stars such as ragtime pianist Eubie Blake, magician Harry Houdini, and child star Baby Rose Marie graced these stages.^[21]>

A Glimpse into a Vaudeville Bill

The following table illustrates a typical performance bill from the Temple Theatre, Detroit, on December 1, 1902. It highlights the strategic placement of acts, from "dumb" opening acts to allow seating, to strong acts in prime positions, and weaker acts at the end to facilitate audience departure. This bill also demonstrates the blend of "lowbrow" (acrobats, trained animals) and "highbrow" (opera vocalists, classical musicians) entertainment that characterized vaudeville.^[21]>

Act Number	Performers	Description	Manager's Comment
(1)	Burt Jordan and Rosa Crouch	Sensational, grotesque and 'buck' dancers.	"A good act ..."
(2)	The White Tscherkess Trio	A man and two women who do a singing turn of the operatic order. They carry special scenery which is very artistic and their costumes are original and neat. Their voices are good and blend exceedingly well.	"The act goes big with the audience."
(3)	Sarah Midgely and Gertie Carlisle	Presenting the sketch 'After School.'	"... they are a 'knockout.'"
(4)	Theodor F. Smith and Jenny St. George-Fuller	Refined instrumentalists.
(5)	Milly Capell	European equestrienne.	"This is her second week. On account of the very pretty picture that she makes she goes as strong as she did last week."
(6)	R. J. Jose	Tenor singer.	"The very best of them all."
(7)	The Nelson Family of Acrobats	This act is composed of three men, two young women, three boys and two small girls. The greatest acrobatic act extant.
(8)	James Thornton	Monologist and vocalist.	"He goes like a cyclone. It is a case of continuous laughter from his entrance to his exit."
(9)	Burk and Andrus and Their Trained Mule		"This act, if it can be so classed, was closed after the evening performance."

Women in Vaudeville

Expanding Roles and Objectification

The 1920s saw a surge in demand for all-girl bands in vaudeville, with groups like The Ingenues and The Dixie Sweethearts gaining significant publicity. This trend, while offering new opportunities for women, also reflected broader societal shifts where women's expanding public roles were often accompanied by objectification, a concept explored in Feminist Theory as the "male gaze."^[25] Vaudeville stages became highly sexualized spaces, featuring "blue" material, provocative dancers, and singers, which managers sometimes used as a marketing strategy to attract diverse audiences.^[5] This era marked a period where the female body became a "sexual spectacle," influencing American visual culture.^[24]>

Notable Female Performers

Many women found immense success in vaudeville, often breaking societal norms.

Marie Dressler: A Canadian actress who excelled in vaudeville comedy, known for her comedic timing and physical humor. She later won an Academy Award, though she often returned to her vaudeville roots.^[26]
Trixie Friganza: Famous for her catchphrase "You know Trixie with her bag of tricks," she began in opera to support her family secretly. She embraced her plus-size figure, calling herself the "perfect forty-six," and was also a poet and activist for women's equality and self-acceptance.^[27]
Betty Felsen: An American ballerina and vaudeville star, she performed solo dances from a young age and later joined the Chicago Opera’s Pavley-Oukrainsky Ballet corps de ballet. She achieved stardom with her dance partner Jack Broderick, touring extensively and starring in musical productions.^{[27]> (Note: The SOT attributes this to Trixie Friganza's reference, but the content is about Betty Felsen. I will keep the citation as is, assuming it's a general reference for female performers.)}
May Irwin: A comedienne known for her improvisational skills and African-American-influenced songs, including her signature "The Bully Song." She achieved global recognition, performing in the U.K.^[28]
Sophie Tucker: A Russian Jewish immigrant, she initially performed in Blackface but found greater success by being herself, particularly with her song "Some of These Days."^[29]
Moms Mabley, Ma Rainey, Ida Cox, Bessie Smith: These blues singers and comediennes also launched their careers in vaudeville and the Chitlin' circuits, achieving mainstream success.^{[30]>^[31]}

Women Behind the Scenes

Beyond performing, women also played crucial roles in the business aspects of vaudeville. Amanda Thorpe, a white woman, founded a black theater in Virginia,^[32] while the Griffin Sisters managed several theaters in their efforts to establish a Black Vaudeville circuit.^[33] These women-led touring companies, such as Black Patti's Troubadours, the Whitman Sisters, and the Hyers Sisters, were popular acts, demonstrating the entrepreneurial spirit and influence of women in the industry.

Black Vaudeville

Challenging Stereotypes

Black performers and patrons were integral to a racially segregated vaudeville circuit. While popular acts like Lewis and Walker, Ernest Hogan, Irving Jones, and the Hyers Sisters performed for both white and black audiences, early white-oriented vaudeville shows typically limited Black acts to one per performance. Black performers also faced significant discrimination in lodging and dining.^[35] Despite these challenges, African Americans actively challenged prevailing Blackface stereotypes, often performed by white actors, by bringing their authentic styles to the stage. They composed original music, comedy, and dance routines, laying foundational groundwork for distinctly American cultural phenomena such as blues, jazz, ragtime, and tap dance.^[35]>

Entrepreneurship and Circuits

African American entertainers and entrepreneurs, including The Whitman Sisters, Pat Chapelle, and John Isham, established and managed their own touring companies. Others, like Sherman H. Dudley and the Griffin Sisters, ventured into theater ownership and management, creating dedicated Black Vaudeville circuits.^[34] In the 1920s, many bookings for Black performers were handled by the Theatre Owners Booking Association.^[35]>

Influential Artists and Composers

Notable Black vaudeville entertainers included comedians Bert Williams and George Walker, and dancer/choreographer Ada Overton Walker.^[35] Black songwriters and composers such as Bob Cole, Ernest Hogan, Irving Jones, Rosamond Johnson, George Johnson, Tom Lemonier, Gussie L. Davis, and Chris Smith penned many of the songs popularized by white singers on stage. Their contributions were crucial in paving the way for the development of African-American musical theater, enriching the broader American cultural landscape.^[36]>

Immigrant America

A Mirror of Urban Culture

Vaudeville served as a significant cultural reflection of the evolving urban inner-city landscape and the complex interactions among its diverse operators and audiences. The mid-19th century witnessed substantial immigration to the United States, with Irish Americans forming a large portion of these new arrivals. They often faced discrimination due to perceived ethnic, physical, and cultural differences, frequently depicted as "greenhorns" in entertainment to highlight their immigrant status.^[37]>

Inter-Ethnic Dynamics

As subsequent waves of immigrants from various backgrounds arrived, they often encountered Irish Americans who, having settled and being native English speakers, leveraged these advantages to assert their position in the immigrant racial hierarchy. This was often based on skin tone and assimilation status, securing job positions previously unavailable to them.^[38] Consequently, Irish Americans became prominent as both curators and actors in vaudeville, fostering a unique ethnic interplay that combined self-deprecating humor with observations of their diverse urban surroundings.^[39]>

Humor and Stereotypes

The vaudeville stage became an avenue for expressing and understanding the often-hostile immigrant experience through comic relief, frequently perpetuating stereotypes of different ethnic groups.^[40] These crude caricatures were easily recognizable by their distinct cultural attributes and how they contrasted with mainstream American identity.^[41] Irish Americans, drawing on their historical presence in English stage comedy, became key interpreters of immigrant cultural images in American popular culture, defining the status of new arrivals within the immigrant population.^{[39]>^[42] Unfortunately, urban racial tensions also manifested, with black-face minstrelsy sometimes used to position African Americans below the Irish in the social hierarchy.^[43]>}

Aspiration and Mobility

Despite the problematic aspects of ethnic caricatures, groups like the Chinese, Italians, Germans, and Jews also utilized this humor to understand themselves and the Irish.^[44] The working class constituted two-thirds of the typical vaudeville audience, making the stage a reflection of societal status.^[44] The comedic portrayal of the "greenhorn" immigrant not only highlighted their newcomer status but also presented an aspirational model of economic upward mobility, exemplified by the Irish American ideal of transitioning from "shanty" to "lace curtain."^{[45]>^[41]}

The Curtain Falls

The Rise of Cinema

The burgeoning cinema industry, particularly its lower-priced offerings in the early 1910s, delivered the most significant blow to vaudeville. Movies were initially presented in vaudeville halls, with the first public screen projection occurring at Koster and Bial's Music Hall in 1896. Many vaudeville performers, enticed by higher salaries and less demanding work, transitioned to the new medium of film. Stars like Al Jolson, W. C. Fields, Mae West, Buster Keaton, and the Marx Brothers leveraged their live performance fame to launch cinematic careers. However, this often meant that acts that could sustain years of touring were consumed in mere moments on screen, diminishing their novelty.

The Advent of "Talkies"

Initially, vaudevillians hoped that the silent nature of films would prevent them from fully eclipsing live performance. This changed dramatically with the introduction of talking pictures in 1926. This innovation eliminated the primary advantage of live theater—spoken dialogue—and rapidly accelerated vaudeville's decline. As historian John Kenrick noted, top vaudeville stars filming their acts inadvertently hastened the demise of the genre. When "small time" theaters could offer "big time" performers on screen for a nickel, audiences had little incentive to pay more for less impressive live talent.^[46] Major studios like RKO acquired vaudeville circuits, converting them into full-time movie theaters, effectively dismantling the half-century tradition of vaudeville within a few years.

Radio and Economic Pressures

The rise of broadcast radio, with inexpensive receiver sets becoming widely available later in the 1920s, further eroded vaudeville's audience. Even the most resilient figures in the industry recognized the terminal decline. The standardized film distribution and talking pictures of the 1930s solidified vaudeville's end. By 1930, most live theaters were wired for sound, and silent films were no longer produced by major studios. While luxurious theaters initially maintained live entertainment, the economic pressures of the Great Depression forced most to economize, leading to the elimination of live acts.

The Final Bow

Some industry insiders attributed vaudeville's demise to the talent drain to cinema, while others argued that the performances had become too predictable for its once-loyal audiences. Although there was no single abrupt end, the shift of New York City's Palace Theatre—the very heart of vaudeville—to an exclusively cinema presentation on November 16, 1932, is widely regarded as the symbolic death knell of the genre.^[47] Despite occasional discussions of its revival in later decades, the collapse of the supporting circuit infrastructure and the higher costs of live performance rendered any large-scale resurgence of vaudeville impractical.

Enduring Legacy

Shaping Modern Media

Vaudeville played a crucial role in the success and development of newer media forms such as film, radio, and television. Many prominent vaudevillians successfully transitioned to cinema, with some, like Bert Lahr, crafting careers that blended live performance with radio and film roles. Film comedies from the 1920s to the 1940s frequently drew talent from the vaudeville stage and adopted its aesthetic of variety entertainment, a trend observed in both Hollywood and Asian cinema, including China.^[48]>

Television's Roots

The rich repertoire and structural format of vaudeville were extensively mined for prime-time radio variety shows, such as The Rudy Vallée Show. This format, featuring a single host introducing a series of diverse acts, became a popular television style. Its influence can be consistently traced through the evolution of television, from The Milton Berle Show in 1948 to Late Night with David Letterman in the 1980s.^[49] The multi-act structure found renewed success in programs like Your Show of Shows with Sid Caesar and The Ed Sullivan Show. Today, contemporary performers like Bill Irwin are often celebrated as "New Vaudevillians," demonstrating the enduring appeal of the genre's performance techniques.^{[50]>^[51]}

Cultural Imprint

Vaudeville's cultural influence extends into everyday language and popular culture. Terms like "flop" and "gag," originating from the vaudeville era, have become ingrained in the American idiom. Vaudevillian techniques are still evident in modern television and film, notably in global phenomena such as TV talent shows like America's Got Talent. Even in professional wrestling, a tag team in WWE was named The Vaudevillains,^[52] highlighting the genre's continued resonance. In 2018, film director Christopher Annino founded Vaudeville Con, a gathering to celebrate its history, with the first meeting held in Pawcatuck, Connecticut,^{[53]>^[54] underscoring a persistent interest in this foundational American entertainment form.}

Preserving History

Major Collections

The rich history of vaudeville is meticulously preserved in various archives and collections worldwide, offering invaluable resources for scholars and enthusiasts.

The records of the Tivoli Theatre are housed at the State Library of Victoria in Melbourne, Australia, complemented by personal papers of Tivoli Theatre vaudevillian performers, including extensive costume and set design holdings, at the Performing Arts Collection, Arts Centre Melbourne.
The American Vaudeville Museum, boasting one of the largest collections of vaudeville memorabilia, is located at the University of Arizona.^[55]
Canada's Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres in Toronto proudly house the world's largest collection of vaudeville props and scenery.
The Benjamin Franklin Keith and Edward F. Albee Collection at the University of Iowa contains a substantial array of managers' report books, detailing and commenting on nightly lineups and act quality.^[56]

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References

Kenrick, John. "History of Musical Film, 1927â30: Part II". Musicals101.com, 2004, accessed May 17, 2010

A full list of references for this article are available at the Vaudeville Wikipedia page

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The Grand Stage

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What is Vaudeville? ℹ️

🎭 A Tapestry of Talent

🌟 The Vaudevillian Spectrum

🏛️ Heart of American Show Business

Etymology 📜

🗣️ Voice of the City

🏞️ Songs of Vire Valley

📚 Historical Endorsement

Early Stages 🌱

🕰️ Gradual Evolution

🌐 Pre-Civil War Variety

🎪 Diverse Influences

🎩 Tony Pastor's Innovation

Peak Popularity 📈

🌐 National Circuits and Standardization

📏 The "Polite" Ethos

🏙️ The Big Time and Beyond

📊 A Glimpse into a Vaudeville Bill

Women in Vaudeville 💃

✨ Expanding Roles and Objectification

⭐️ Notable Female Performers

💼 Women Behind the Scenes

Black Vaudeville 🎶

✊ Challenging Stereotypes

💼 Entrepreneurship and Circuits

🎵 Influential Artists and Composers

Immigrant America 🌍

🎭 A Mirror of Urban Culture

🤝 Inter-Ethnic Dynamics

😂 Humor and Stereotypes

📈 Aspiration and Mobility

The Curtain Falls 📉

🎬 The Rise of Cinema

🗣️ The Advent of "Talkies"

📻 Radio and Economic Pressures

🔚 The Final Bow

Enduring Legacy 🌟

🎬 Shaping Modern Media

📺 Television's Roots

🗣️ Cultural Imprint

Preserving History 🏛️

📚 Major Collections

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Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Vaudeville?

A Tapestry of Talent

The Vaudevillian Spectrum

Heart of American Show Business

Etymology

Voice of the City

Songs of Vire Valley

Historical Endorsement

Early Stages

Gradual Evolution

Pre-Civil War Variety

Diverse Influences

Tony Pastor's Innovation

Peak Popularity

National Circuits and Standardization

The "Polite" Ethos

The Big Time and Beyond

A Glimpse into a Vaudeville Bill

Women in Vaudeville

Expanding Roles and Objectification

Notable Female Performers

Women Behind the Scenes

Black Vaudeville

Challenging Stereotypes

Entrepreneurship and Circuits

Influential Artists and Composers

Immigrant America

A Mirror of Urban Culture

Inter-Ethnic Dynamics

Humor and Stereotypes

Aspiration and Mobility

The Curtain Falls

The Rise of Cinema

The Advent of "Talkies"

Radio and Economic Pressures

The Final Bow

Enduring Legacy

Shaping Modern Media

Television's Roots

Cultural Imprint

Preserving History

Major Collections

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice