What was the War of the Second Coalition, and when did it take place?

The War of the Second Coalition was the second major conflict where various European monarchies united to oppose revolutionary France. It spanned from June 1798 to March 1802, lasting over three years and eight months.

Which major European powers formed the core of the Second Coalition against France?

The primary members of the Second Coalition were Great Britain, Austria, and the Russian Empire. Other significant participants included the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, and Naples, along with various German states.

What were the main objectives of Great Britain and Russia in forming the Second Coalition?

Great Britain and Russia aimed to curb the expansion of the French Republic and to reinstate the monarchy in France.

What was Austria's primary strategic goal in joining the Second Coalition, considering its financial state after the first war?

Austria, weakened and in significant debt from the War of the First Coalition, primarily sought to recover its standing and emerge from the conflict in a stronger position, rather than solely focusing on overthrowing the French government.

How did the War of the Second Coalition conclude for France and its primary European adversaries?

The war concluded with a French victory, confirmed by treaties like the Treaty of Lunéville with Austria and the Treaty of Amiens with Great Britain, which largely upheld France's territorial gains and established a brief period of peace in Europe.

What was the territorial outcome of the War of the Second Coalition for several key regions and islands?

As a result of the war, Trinidad, Ceylon, and Malta were ceded to Britain. Parma and Louisiana were transferred to France, while Tuscany was returned to the House of Bourbon. Additionally, the Septinsular Republic was established, and Spain gained Olivença from Portugal.

Did Prussia participate in the Second Coalition, and what was Spain's stance?

Prussia chose not to join the Second Coalition, maintaining neutrality. Spain, however, supported France during this conflict.

What role did the United States play in the context of the Second Coalition?

The United States was a co-belligerent, engaged in an undeclared naval conflict known as the Quasi-War with France from 1798 until 1800. However, the U.S. was not an official member of the Second Coalition.

What challenges did the French armies face in terms of readiness and supply in late 1798, as noted by Marshal Jourdan?

Marshal Jourdan observed that the French armies, including the Army of Observation, the Army of the Danube, and the Army of Mayence, were significantly understaffed and lacked essential supplies, ammunition, and adequate training, as most resources had been diverted to other fronts.

What was the primary objective of Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt and Syria in 1798?

Napoleon's expedition aimed to establish a French presence in the Middle East, potentially disrupting British trade routes to India and furthering French influence in the region.

How did Napoleon's actions in Malta contribute to the tensions leading to the Second Coalition?

Napoleon's capture of Malta from the Knights of St. John in June 1798 angered Tsar Paul I of Russia, who was the honorary head of the Order, thus contributing to the growing animosity and the formation of the coalition.

What was the outcome of the initial military actions taken by the Kingdom of Naples in late 1798?

Influenced by Austrian pressure and internal politics, the Neapolitan army occupied Rome but was soon defeated by the French, leading to the French occupation of Naples itself in January 1799.

What major military campaigns did the allied powers undertake in Europe during 1799?

During 1799, the allies launched significant campaigns in Italy and Switzerland, led by figures like Alexander Suvorov, and conducted an Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands.

What impact did the Battles of Zurich and Castricum have on Russia's participation in the Second Coalition?

The Russian army suffered significant defeats at the Second Battle of Zurich in Switzerland and during the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland (culminating in the retreat after the Battle of Castricum). Combined with British maritime policies, these reverses led Russia to withdraw from the Second Coalition.

How did Napoleon Bonaparte transition from his Egyptian campaign to becoming the First Consul of France?

After facing setbacks in Syria and repelling an Ottoman invasion, Napoleon abandoned his army in Egypt, returned to France in October 1799, and used his popularity and military support to stage a coup d'état, establishing himself as First Consul.

What was the strategic importance of controlling the Swiss passes during the War of the Second Coalition?

Controlling the Swiss passes was crucial as they provided a key route for troop movement between the northern Italian and German theaters of operation, allowing a force to quickly reinforce or attack either front and potentially threaten Vienna.

What was the outcome of Marshal Suvorov's Italian campaign in 1799?

Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov achieved a series of victories against the French in Italy, driving them back towards the Alps, but his subsequent campaign in Switzerland ended in a difficult retreat.

What was the result of the Anglo-Russian invasion of the Netherlands?

The Anglo-Russian forces were ultimately unsuccessful in their invasion of the Netherlands. They retreated after facing defeat, notably at the Battle of Castricum.

What key battles marked the turning point in the war during 1800, leading to Austria suing for peace?

The Battle of Hohenlinden, where General Moreau decisively defeated the Austrian army, and Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Marengo were pivotal in forcing Austria to seek peace, leading to the Armistice of Steyr.

How did Napoleon's second Italian campaign, beginning in May 1800, unfold?

Napoleon led his army across the Alps, besieged Fort Bard, and then secured a narrow victory against the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo, which led to Austria evacuating key territories in Italy.

What was the significance of the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801?

The Treaty of Lunéville formally ended the war between France and Austria (representing the Holy Roman Empire), confirming France's territorial gains from the Treaty of Campo Formio and awarding Venetia and Dalmatia to Austria.

How did Britain continue its war effort after the continental allies made peace?

Britain continued the war primarily at sea, challenging the Second League of Armed Neutrality (formed by Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Sweden to protect neutral shipping) and achieving a significant victory at the Battle of Copenhagen.

What was the "War of the Oranges," and what was its outcome?

The War of the Oranges was a brief conflict in 1801 where France and Spain invaded Portugal. It concluded with Portugal signing the Treaty of Badajoz, ceding territory to Spain and closing its ports to British ships.

What was the ultimate fate of Napoleon's army in Egypt after his departure?

After Napoleon left his army to return to France, the French forces in Egypt eventually surrendered to the Ottoman and British forces in September 1801.

What treaty formally ended the War of the Second Coalition between Britain and France?

The Treaty of Amiens, signed in March 1802, formally ended the war between Great Britain and France, bringing a temporary peace to Europe.

What historical perspective does Paul W. Schroeder offer on the failure of the Second Coalition?

Paul W. Schroeder argued against the simplistic view that Austria's self-interest caused the coalition's failure. He suggested that Austria's precarious financial state and the self-serving ambitions of all major powers contributed to the coalition's inability to achieve its goals.

What was the "Day of the Tiles" in 1788, and how does it relate to the French Revolution's origins?

The Day of the Tiles, occurring on June 7, 1788, was a significant event where the Parlement of Grenoble resisted royal authority by throwing tiles from rooftops at troops. This act of defiance against the monarchy is considered a precursor to the broader revolutionary actions that followed.

What was the purpose of the National Assembly formed in June 1789?

The National Assembly was formed by representatives of the Third Estate, who declared themselves the sovereign body of France, asserting their authority over the monarchy and initiating fundamental political changes.

What event on July 14, 1789, became a potent symbol of the French Revolution?

The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, was a pivotal event where revolutionaries attacked the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal tyranny, marking a significant escalation of the revolution.

What was the "Great Fear" that swept through France in the summer of 1789?

The Great Fear was a period of peasant unrest and panic across the French countryside, characterized by attacks on manor houses and the destruction of feudal records, driven by rumors of aristocratic conspiracies.

What was the significance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August 1789?

This declaration, adopted by the National Constituent Assembly, proclaimed fundamental rights such as liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, establishing core principles of the revolution.

What was the "Flight to Varennes" in June 1791, and what was its consequence?

The Flight to Varennes was King Louis XVI's failed attempt to escape Paris with his family. This event severely damaged his credibility and fueled republican sentiment, ultimately contributing to the monarchy's downfall.

What was the "Reign of Terror," and when did it occur?

The Reign of Terror was a period from June 1793 to July 1794 marked by mass executions and political repression, orchestrated by the Committee of Public Safety to eliminate perceived enemies of the revolution.

What was the "Thermidorian Reaction" in July 1794?

The Thermidorian Reaction was a parliamentary revolt against the excesses of the Reign of Terror, leading to the arrest and execution of Maximilien Robespierre and his allies, and marking a shift away from radical Jacobin rule.

What was the "Coup of 18 Brumaire" in November 1799?

The Coup of 18 Brumaire was a seizure of power orchestrated by Napoleon Bonaparte, which overthrew the Directory and established the French Consulate, effectively placing Napoleon at the head of the French government.

What was the "Quasi-War" involving the United States?

The Quasi-War was an undeclared naval conflict between the United States and the First French Republic from 1798 to 1800, stemming from trade disputes and political tensions following the Jay Treaty between the U.S. and Great Britain.

What was the strategic importance of the Battle of Marengo in 1800?

The Battle of Marengo was a crucial victory for Napoleon Bonaparte's French army against the Austrians in Italy, securing French dominance in the region and contributing to Austria's decision to negotiate peace.

What was the significance of the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801?

The Battle of Copenhagen was a decisive naval victory for the British fleet, led by Nelson, against the Danish fleet anchored in the harbor, breaking the Second League of Armed Neutrality.

What territorial changes did the Treaty of Lunéville (1801) bring about for Austria?

As part of the Treaty of Lunéville, Austria ceded its territories in Italy and received Venetia and former Venetian Dalmatia from France.

What was the "Russo-Ottoman Alliance" formed in December 1798?

The Russo-Ottoman Alliance was a pact formed between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire in December 1798, aligning them against French expansionism, particularly in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

What was the "League of Armed Neutrality" and its purpose during this period?

The League of Armed Neutrality, revived in 1800 with Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Sweden, was an alliance of neutral maritime powers aimed at protecting their shipping from British naval blockades and searches.

What role did Marshal Alexander Suvorov play in the War of the Second Coalition?

Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov led the Russian forces in successful campaigns against the French in Italy during 1799, inflicting several defeats before his army's difficult withdrawal through the Alps.

What was the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" mentioned in the context of territorial changes?

The Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, or Principal Conclusion of the Extraordinary Imperial Delegation, was a significant legislative measure in the Holy Roman Empire that secularized church lands and reorganized territories, largely influenced by French demands following the war.

What was the "Battle of the Pyramids" mentioned in the infobox?

The Battle of the Pyramids, fought in July 1798 during Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, was a major victory for the French forces against the Mamluk cavalry, securing French control over Lower Egypt.

What was the "Battle of the Nile" mentioned in the infobox?

The Battle of the Nile, fought in August 1798, was a decisive naval engagement where the British fleet under Horatio Nelson destroyed the French fleet off the coast of Egypt, cutting off Napoleon's army and preventing French reinforcement.

What was the "Second Battle of Zurich" in 1799?

The Second Battle of Zurich, fought in September 1799, resulted in a decisive defeat for the Austro-Russian forces against the French army led by André Masséna, a major setback for the coalition in Switzerland.

What was the "Battle of Hohenlinden" in December 1800?

The Battle of Hohenlinden was a significant French victory led by General Moreau against the Austrian army in Bavaria, which paved the way for French advances towards Vienna and ultimately led to Austria seeking peace.

What was the "Battle of Marengo" in June 1800?

The Battle of Marengo was a critical victory for Napoleon Bonaparte's French army against the Austrians in Italy, securing French dominance in the region and contributing to Austria's decision to negotiate peace.

What was the "Battle of Copenhagen" in April 1801?

The Battle of Copenhagen was a decisive naval engagement where the British fleet, led by Nelson, attacked and defeated the Danish fleet anchored in the harbor, breaking the Second League of Armed Neutrality.

What was the "War of the Oranges" in 1801?

The War of the Oranges was a brief conflict initiated by France and Spain against Portugal, resulting in Portugal signing the Treaty of Badajoz, which ceded territory to Spain and closed its ports to British trade.

War Of The Second Coalition Wiki: The Second Coalition: Europe's Gambit Against Revolutionary France

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Background

Context of Conflict

The War of the Second Coalition (1798/9–1801/2) represented a concerted effort by European monarchies, primarily led by Great Britain, Austria, and Russia, to contain the expansionist policies of Revolutionary France. This conflict was a continuation of the broader struggle initiated during the War of the First Coalition, with the objective of curbing French influence and potentially restoring the monarchy in France. Austria, in particular, sought to regain its pre-war standing and territorial integrity, having been significantly weakened financially and militarily by the preceding conflict.

Treaty of Campo Formio

The Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797), signed between France and Austria, ostensibly brought an end to the War of the First Coalition. However, underlying tensions persisted, characterized by mutual suspicion and French demands for additional territories beyond the treaty's stipulations. The subsequent Congress at Rastatt struggled to implement the territorial adjustments mandated by the treaty, highlighting the fragility of the peace and setting the stage for renewed hostilities.

Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition

Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798, undertaken partly to disrupt British trade routes, inadvertently escalated tensions. The capture of Malta en route and the subsequent French actions there angered Tsar Paul I of Russia, who held a titular leadership role within the Knights of Malta. Simultaneously, the French Directory perceived Austrian actions as preparations for renewed conflict, contributing to the diplomatic climate that favored war.

Peace Interrupted

Erosion of the Treaty

The period between the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797) and the formal outbreak of the Second Coalition (March 1799) was marked by diplomatic friction. France's insistence on territorial concessions beyond the treaty's terms and Austria's reluctance to comply created an atmosphere of distrust. The failure of the Congress at Rastatt to resolve territorial disputes further destabilized the European order.

Swiss Instability

The establishment of the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland, facilitated by French support for local revolutionaries, altered the strategic landscape. Control over key Swiss mountain passes became crucial for troop movement between the northern Italian and German theaters, making Switzerland a critical area of contention and a precursor to wider conflict.

Neapolitan Campaign

In Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, influenced by Austria and its queen, Maria Carolina, initiated hostilities against French forces. The subsequent occupation of Rome by Neapolitan troops under Austrian General Karl Mack von Leiberich, followed by the swift French counter-offensive that led to the fall of Naples itself in January 1799, demonstrated the volatile political situation and the vulnerability of states opposing France.

Preliminaries to War

Strategic Imperatives

The French military leadership recognized the vital importance of controlling the Rhine Valley, southwestern Germany, and Switzerland. Dominance in these regions was essential for defending French borders and projecting power into Italy and Germany. Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, commanding the Army of Observation on the Rhine, identified critical deficiencies in manpower, supplies, and training, noting that resources were heavily allocated to other French armies, leaving his forces inadequleguately prepared for anticipated coalition actions.

Control of Alpine Passes

Control over strategic locations like the St. Gotthard Pass, the passes near Feldkirch, and the central Swiss plateau around Zurich was paramount. These positions would allow French forces to maneuver effectively between the Italian and German fronts and potentially block Allied troop movements. The armies of the Danube, Helvetia, and Mainz were tasked with securing these critical routes.

Formation of the Coalition

Diplomatic Maneuvers

The formation of the Second Coalition was a gradual process throughout late 1798 and early 1799. Naples allied with Austria and Russia, followed by Russia's alignment with the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. Despite efforts by British Prime Minister Pitt and Austrian Chancellor Thugut, Prussia remained neutral. The lack of a formal alliance between Britain and Austria, complicated by financial disagreements stemming from the previous war, led to a strategy of ad hoc cooperation.

Shifting Alliances

Russia's increasing opposition to French actions, particularly concerning the Knights of Malta, solidified its role in the coalition. Great Britain provided crucial financial subsidies, while Austria committed its forces with the primary aim of territorial recovery rather than solely overthrowing the French Republic. Spain, conversely, supported France, leading to the War of the Oranges against Portugal.

Warfare: 1799

Italian and Swiss Campaigns

The coalition achieved significant early successes. In Italy, General Alexander Suvorov led Russian forces to a series of victories against the French, pushing them back towards the Alps. However, Allied efforts in the Netherlands proved less successful, culminating in a British-Russian withdrawal after the Battle of Castricum. In Switzerland, initial Austro-Russian gains were reversed following the decisive French victory at the Second Battle of Zurich, a turning point that contributed to Russia's eventual withdrawal from the coalition.

Napoleon's Return

Napoleon's campaign in Syria faltered with the failed Siege of Acre. Upon returning to Egypt, he repelled an Ottoman invasion at the Battle of Abukir. Receiving news of the political instability in France, Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to Paris, executing a coup d'état that established him as First Consul and effectively ended the Directory.

Warfare: 1800

Moreau in Germany

General Jean Victor Marie Moreau led the French Army of the Danube into Bavaria, achieving a significant victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Hohenlinden. This success compelled Austria to seek terms, leading to the Armistice of Steyr in December 1800 and effectively ending Austria's participation in the war for that year.

Napoleon's Italian Campaign

Napoleon personally led his newly formed Army of the Alps across the Great St. Bernard Pass into Italy. After a protracted Siege of Fort Bard, he engaged the Austrian forces, securing a narrow victory at the Battle of Marengo. This victory led to the evacuation of Austrian forces from key Italian territories and paved the way for the Treaty of Lunéville.

Warfare: 1801

Treaty of Lunéville

The Treaty of Lunéville, signed in February 1801, formally concluded the war between France and Austria (representing the Holy Roman Empire). Austria ceded territories along the Rhine to France and recognized the French client republics. In return, Austria received territories in Venetia and Dalmatia, confirming the territorial shifts initiated by the earlier Treaty of Campo Formio.

British Naval Actions

While continental powers concluded peace, Great Britain continued naval operations. The Second League of Armed Neutrality, formed to protect neutral shipping from British interdiction, was challenged by Nelson's decisive victory at the Battle of Copenhagen. In the Mediterranean, British forces supported Ottoman actions in Egypt, compelling the French surrender in Alexandria.

War of the Oranges

France and Spain launched a brief campaign against Portugal, resulting in the Treaty of Badajoz, which forced Portugal to cede territory and close its ports to British trade, aligning it more closely with French interests.

Aftermath and Treaties

Peace of Amiens

The Treaty of Amiens, signed between Great Britain and France in March 1802, marked the end of the Second Coalition and ushered in a period of relative peace in Europe. This treaty temporarily resolved many of the conflicts stemming from the French Revolutionary Wars, although underlying tensions would soon lead to renewed hostilities.

Territorial Realignments

The peace treaties resulted in significant territorial realignments. France solidified its control over the left bank of the Rhine and recognized the independence of its client republics in the Batavian, Helvetic, and Cisalpine regions. Austria gained territories in Venetia and Dalmatia. Russia formally concluded peace with France, signing a secret alliance.

Strategic Analysis

Coalition Failures

Historians like Paul W. Schroeder argue that the Second Coalition's failure stemmed not solely from Austria's perceived self-interest, but from the complex web of competing objectives among the major powers. Austria's primary goal was recovery and strengthening, not necessarily the complete overthrow of the French Republic, due to its precarious financial and internal situation. Furthermore, Russia, Prussia, Britain, and the Ottomans all harbored their own strategic ambitions and mutual suspicions, hindering unified action.

Balance of Power

The war ultimately failed to restore the pre-revolutionary balance of power. Instead, French influence expanded, confirmed by treaties like Lunéville and Amiens. The coalition's inability to coordinate strategy effectively and the internal divisions among its members allowed France, particularly under Napoleon's leadership, to emerge stronger and dictate terms, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Sources

Bibliographical Information

This content is synthesized from various historical analyses and reference materials, including works by T.C.W. Blanning, Paul W. Schroeder, Felix Markham, Steven Englund, and others specializing in the Napoleonic era and the French Revolutionary Wars.

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References

Left the war signing the treaty of Paris (August 1801).

Great Britain until 1801. Left the war signing the treaty of Amiens.

Left the war signing the Treaty of Paris (8 October 1801).

Left the war signing the Treaty of Florence with France.

And other supporting soldiers as the Polish Legions and some Mamluks in captivity.

Tricolor and crescent William E. Watson p.13-14

Napoleon and Persia by Iradj Amini, p. 12

Karsh, p.11

A full list of references for this article are available at the War of the Second Coalition Wikipedia page

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The Second Coalition

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Background 📜

🌍 Context of Conflict

⚖️ Treaty of Campo Formio

🚢 Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition

Peace Interrupted 🕊️

📉 Erosion of the Treaty

🇨🇭 Swiss Instability

🇮🇹 Neapolitan Campaign

Preliminaries to War 🗺️

R Strategic Imperatives

🏔️ Control of Alpine Passes

Formation of the Coalition 🤝

🗓️ Diplomatic Maneuvers

👑 Shifting Alliances

Warfare: 1799 1️⃣7️⃣9️⃣9️⃣

🇮🇹 Italian and Swiss Campaigns

🇪🇬 Napoleon's Return

Warfare: 1800 1️⃣8️⃣0️⃣0️⃣

🇩🇪 Moreau in Germany

🏔️ Napoleon's Italian Campaign

Warfare: 1801 1️⃣8️⃣0️⃣1️⃣

🇦🇹 Treaty of Lunéville

🇬🇧 British Naval Actions

🇵🇹 War of the Oranges

Aftermath and Treaties ⚖️

🤝 Peace of Amiens

🗺️ Territorial Realignments

Strategic Analysis 📊

🧐 Coalition Failures

⚖️ Balance of Power

See Also 🔗

📚 Related Topics

Notes 📝

ℹ️ Clarifications

Sources 📚

📖 Bibliographical Information

External Links 🌐

🖼️ Wikimedia Commons

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Background

Context of Conflict

Treaty of Campo Formio

Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition

Peace Interrupted

Erosion of the Treaty

Swiss Instability

Neapolitan Campaign

Preliminaries to War

Strategic Imperatives

Control of Alpine Passes

Formation of the Coalition

Diplomatic Maneuvers

Shifting Alliances

Warfare: 1799

Italian and Swiss Campaigns

Napoleon's Return

Warfare: 1800

Moreau in Germany

Napoleon's Italian Campaign

Warfare: 1801

Treaty of Lunéville

British Naval Actions

War of the Oranges

Aftermath and Treaties

Peace of Amiens

Territorial Realignments

Strategic Analysis

Coalition Failures

Balance of Power

See Also

Related Topics

Notes

Clarifications

Sources

Bibliographical Information

External Links

Wikimedia Commons

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice