The Wehrmacht
An examination of the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany, their operational context, and their complex historical legacy.
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Overview
Definition and Scope
The Wehrmacht constituted the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 until its formal dissolution in 1946. It comprised the Heer (Army), the Kriegsmarine (Navy), and the Luftwaffe (Air Force). This designation replaced the earlier term Reichswehr and signified the Nazi regime's aggressive rearmament efforts, significantly exceeding the limitations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.
Historical Context
Established following the Nazi rise to power, the Wehrmacht was central to Adolf Hitler's expansionist policies. Its campaigns, often characterized by combined arms tactics known as Blitzkrieg (lightning war), achieved significant early successes in Poland, France, and the Soviet Union. However, strategic overreach and logistical strain eventually exposed weaknesses, leading to major defeats and Germany's ultimate loss in World War II.
Controversial Legacy
Beyond its military operations, the Wehrmacht is inextricably linked with the atrocities committed during the Nazi era. In close cooperation with SS and Einsatzgruppen units, it participated in numerous war crimes, including the Holocaust and campaigns of annihilation, particularly in occupied territories like the Soviet Union and Poland. The post-war period saw extensive debate and historical revisionism regarding the extent of its involvement in these crimes.
Origins and Etymology
Linguistic Roots
The term Wehrmacht is derived from the German words wehren (to defend) and Macht (power, force), literally translating to "defence force." Historically, the term was used more broadly to denote any nation's armed forces. For instance, the Frankfurt Constitution of 1849 designated all German military forces as the "German Wehrmacht." The Weimar Constitution also used the term in reference to the Reich's armed forces.
Post-WWI Constraints
Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles imposed severe restrictions on Germany's military capabilities. The armed forces were limited to 100,000 men, with strict constraints on naval vessels, and prohibitions on tanks, heavy artillery, and an air force. Conscription was abolished. The Reichswehr, established in 1921, operated as a small, elite cadre force, adhering to doctrines emphasizing speed, aggression, and initiative, developed under Hans von Seeckt.
Clandestine Rearmament
Throughout the 1920s, Germany covertly circumvented the Treaty of Versailles, notably through collaboration with the Soviet Union. This included training German tank and air force personnel in the USSR and establishing a clandestine fighter-pilot school at Lipetsk. While these activities remained secret, they laid the groundwork for the overt rearmament that commenced after Hitler's rise to power.
Nazi Rise to Power
Hitler's Ascendancy
Upon President Hindenburg's death in August 1934, Hitler assumed the role of Commander-in-Chief. The military leadership, notably Defence Minister Werner von Blomberg, proactively integrated Nazi symbols and loyalty oaths into the armed forces. The Reichswehr was officially renamed the Wehrmacht on 21 May 1935, coinciding with the reinstatement of conscription and the public announcement of Germany's rearmament program, directly violating the Treaty of Versailles.
Rearmament Acceleration
Hitler's initial ten-year remilitarization plan was rapidly accelerated, aiming for completion within four years. Territorial gains through the remilitarization of the Rhineland and the Anschluss with Austria expanded Germany's population base for conscription. The planned structure included a significant increase in divisions and the addition of numerous tank battalions, fundamentally altering the military balance in Europe.
Personnel and Training
Recruitment and Numbers
The Wehrmacht drew personnel through both voluntary enlistment and conscription. Between 1935 and 1939, approximately 1.3 million men were conscripted, with an additional 2.4 million volunteering. Over its existence (1935-1945), the total number of individuals serving approached 18.2 million. As the war progressed, recruitment standards lowered, incorporating younger and older individuals, and accepting personnel with less rigorous physical or ideological alignment.
Training Regimen
Initial recruit training, lasting approximately 16 weeks, focused on instilling discipline, military customs, and basic combat skills. This involved rigorous drills, physical conditioning, weapons handling, and ideological lectures. Barracks training emphasized cleanliness and order, while field training covered practical skills like navigation and tactical exercises. Officer training underwent significant reforms, emphasizing academic subjects alongside military doctrine, though wartime attrition necessitated accelerated and often front-line-integrated training pathways.
Women's Auxiliary Roles
Despite Hitler's initial ideological opposition to women in combat roles, necessity dictated their integration into auxiliary positions within the Wehrmacht, known as Wehrmachthelferinnen. By 1945, approximately 500,000 women served in roles such as communications operators, administrative clerks, anti-aircraft assistants, and nurses. While half were volunteers, the other half performed obligatory war service.
Command Structure
Supreme Command
Adolf Hitler held the ultimate authority as Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht from its inception until his suicide in April 1945. Initially, the Minister of War, Werner von Blomberg, served as Commander-in-Chief. Following the Blomberg-Fritsch Affair, Hitler abolished the Ministry of War and established the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), the Armed Forces High Command, under Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, to coordinate military activities.
High Commands
The OKW oversaw the three branch High Commands: the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) for the Army, the Oberkommando der Marine (OKM) for the Navy, and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL) for the Air Force. While intended as a joint command, Hitler's direct involvement in operational decisions and his preference for personal loyalty over inter-service cohesion often led to rivalry and a lack of unified strategic direction.
Branches of Service
The Army (Heer)
The Heer was the largest component of the Wehrmacht. It pioneered combined arms tactics, integrating ground forces with air support (Luftwaffe) for devastating Blitzkrieg operations. Despite its early successes, the majority of its formations remained reliant on foot and horse-drawn transport throughout the war, a factor that increasingly hampered its effectiveness against mechanized Allied forces, particularly on the Eastern Front.
The Air Force (Luftwaffe)
Re-established in 1935 under Hermann Göring, the Luftwaffe gained initial experience in the Spanish Civil War. It played a crucial role in early Blitzkrieg campaigns, focusing on tactical bombers and fighters. However, strategic bombing capabilities were limited due to economic constraints. The relentless Allied strategic bombing campaign and attrition warfare significantly degraded the Luftwaffe, ultimately leading to Allied air supremacy over the battlefield.
The Navy (Kriegsmarine)
Restricted by the Treaty of Versailles, the Kriegsmarine was rebuilt under Erich Raeder, with a focus on U-boats and surface raiders. While U-boats initially inflicted heavy losses on Allied convoys in the Battle of the Atlantic, Allied technological advancements (sonar, radar) and code-breaking efforts eventually turned the tide. The navy remained the smallest branch, with large surface vessels playing a limited strategic role due to construction limitations and Allied naval dominance.
Theatres and Campaigns
Eastern Front
The invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa, 1941) marked the largest land theatre of the war. Key engagements included the Battles of Moscow, Stalingrad, Kursk, and Kiev. Despite initial rapid advances, the Wehrmacht faced immense logistical challenges, harsh weather, and fierce Soviet resistance, ultimately leading to devastating defeats and a protracted retreat.
Western Front
The Western Theatre included the Phoney War, the rapid conquest of France and the Low Countries (1940), the Battle of Britain (1940), and later the Allied invasions of Normandy (1944) and Southern France. The Wehrmacht's initial successes were followed by defensive campaigns against overwhelming Allied forces.
Mediterranean Theatre
The Wehrmacht also engaged in campaigns in the Mediterranean and North Africa, often in conjunction with Italian forces. Key operations included the invasion of the Balkans and Greece (1940–1941), the Battle of Crete (1941), the North African Campaign, and the Italian Campaign. These theatres presented unique logistical and environmental challenges.
Casualties and Losses
Statistical Overview
The Wehrmacht sustained immense casualties during World War II. Approximately 5.3 million soldiers are estimated to have been killed, died of wounds, died in captivity, or gone missing. Over 6 million were wounded, and more than 11 million became prisoners of war. A significant portion of these losses, over 80%, occurred in the final two years of the war, with the Eastern Front accounting for the majority of deaths.
Personnel Distribution
The table below illustrates the approximate personnel strength across the main branches of the Wehrmacht from 1939 to 1945. It highlights the significant expansion of forces, particularly the Army and the Waffen-SS, as the war progressed.
| 1939 | 1940 | 1941 | 1942 | 1943 | 1944 | 1945 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Heer | 3,737,000 | 4,550,000 | 5,000,000 | 5,800,000 | 6,550,000 | 6,510,000 | 5,300,000 |
| Luftwaffe | 400,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,680,000 | 1,700,000 | 1,700,000 | 1,500,000 | 1,000,000 |
| Kriegsmarine | 50,000 | 250,000 | 404,000 | 580,000 | 780,000 | 810,000 | 700,000 |
| Waffen–SS | 35,000 | 50,000 | 150,000 | 230,000 | 450,000 | 600,000 | 830,000 |
| Total | 4,220,000 | 6,050,000 | 7,234,000 | 8,310,000 | 9,480,000 | 9,420,000 | 7,830,000 |
Source: R.-D. Müller, 2016
War Crimes and Atrocities
Involvement in Nazi Crimes
The Wehrmacht was deeply implicated in the criminal activities of the Nazi regime. Propaganda dehumanized perceived enemies, particularly on the Eastern Front, fostering a climate conducive to brutality. While the SS and Einsatzgruppen were primary perpetrators of mass murder and the Holocaust, the Wehrmacht also committed numerous war crimes, including massacres, participation in executions, and the implementation of policies like the Commissar Order.
Cooperation with the SS
Initially marked by friction, the relationship between the Wehrmacht and the SS evolved, with increasing cooperation and integration as the war progressed. Army officers often served in SS units, and soldiers from both organizations frequently collaborated in combat and security operations. The Wehrmacht provided logistical support, weapons, and personnel to SS units involved in mass killings and provided cover for genocidal actions.
Crimes Against Civilians and POWs
The Wehrmacht committed widespread crimes against civilian populations, often as reprisals for partisan activities, employing a ratio system for executions. Forced brothels were established in occupied territories, utilizing kidnapped women. Conditions in prisoner-of-war camps varied significantly; while Western POWs were generally treated according to international law, Soviet and Polish prisoners faced horrific conditions, leading to millions of deaths from starvation, disease, and execution.
Resistance to Nazism
Early Opposition
Initial opposition within the Wehrmacht was limited, partly due to Hitler's restoration of national pride and military honor after the perceived humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles. However, concerns about the potential for war led to early conspiracies, such as the Oster Conspiracy in 1938, aimed at removing Hitler before the crisis over Czechoslovakia.
The 20 July Plot
As the war turned against Germany, internal resistance grew. The most significant attempt to overthrow Hitler was the 20 July Plot in 1944, led by Claus von Stauffenberg. Although the assassination attempt failed, it symbolized a critical moment of defiance within the military establishment. The plot's failure resulted in severe reprisals, including thousands of executions and the replacement of the traditional military salute with the Hitler salute.
Acts of Conscience
Despite the regime's pervasive influence, some individuals within the Wehrmacht acted against Nazi atrocities. Notable examples include Sergeant Anton Schmid, who aided hundreds of Jews in escaping the Vilna Ghetto, and Captain Wilm Hosenfeld, who protected Polish civilians, including Władysław Szpilman, in Warsaw. These acts of conscience, often undertaken at extreme personal risk, stand in stark contrast to the widespread complicity and participation in crimes.
Post-War Dissolution and Legacy
Formal Dissolution
Following Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945, the Wehrmacht was formally dissolved by the Allied Control Council. Law No. 34, enacted on 20 August 1946, declared the Wehrmacht and its associated organizations illegal and abolished. The last remaining units, including a weather station in Svalbard, surrendered shortly thereafter.
Historical Reassessment
Initial post-war assessments often focused on Allied superiority and Wehrmacht failures. However, subsequent historical analysis, utilizing archival evidence and considering factors like troop cohesion, morale, and tactical proficiency, has offered a more nuanced view. While acknowledging its military capabilities, historians emphasize the Wehrmacht's deep entanglement with Nazi ideology and its role as an instrument of genocide and war crimes.
Successor Militaries
In the post-war division of Germany, both West and East established new military forces: the Bundeswehr in West Germany (1955) and the National People's Army in East Germany (1956). Both organizations incorporated many former Wehrmacht personnel, particularly in leadership roles, though neither officially considered themselves successors to the Wehrmacht. The legacy of the Wehrmacht continues to influence discussions on German military identity and historical memory.
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References
References
- Emblem of the Wehrmacht, the Balkenkreuz, a stylized version of the Iron Cross seen in varying proportions.
- (1938â1945 version)[1]
- The ministry was formally revived in April 1945, when Karl Dönitz was named as Minister of War in Hitler's testament.
- Total GDP: 75 billion (1939) & 118 billion (1944)[7]
- See the Wiktionary article for more information.
- Overmans 2004, p. 215; Müller 2016, p. 16; Wette 2006, p. 77.
- United States Holocaust Memorial Museum n.d.
- Christensen, Poulsen & Smith 2015, pp. 433, 438.
- Christensen, Poulsen & Smith 2015, pp. 435â436.
- van Creveld 1982, p. 3; Hastings 1985; Gray 2007, pp. 148.
- O'Donnell 1978, p. 61; Hastings 1985; Gray 2007, pp. 148.
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Disclaimer
Important Notice
This page was generated by an Artificial Intelligence and is intended for informational and educational purposes only. The content is based on a snapshot of publicly available data from Wikipedia and may not be entirely accurate, complete, or up-to-date. The subject matter involves sensitive historical events and military history, including details of war crimes and atrocities.
This is not a justification or glorification of the Wehrmacht or the Nazi regime. The information provided is presented for historical understanding and analysis. It is crucial to consult diverse historical sources and maintain a critical perspective when studying this period. Always seek advice from qualified historians or academic resources for comprehensive and nuanced understanding.
The creators of this page are not responsible for any errors or omissions, or for any actions taken based on the information provided herein.