What is Written vernacular Chinese, also known as *baihua*?

Written vernacular Chinese, or *baihua*, refers to forms of written Chinese that are based on the spoken varieties of the language found across China. It stands in contrast to Literary Chinese, which was the dominant written form in imperial China until the early 20th century. Essentially, *baihua* is written as people speak, making it more accessible.

How does Written vernacular Chinese differ from Literary Chinese?

Written vernacular Chinese is based on the spoken varieties of the language, while Literary Chinese was the predominant written form in imperial China until the early 20th century, emulating the language of ancient classics. Literary Chinese was a more formal and archaic written style, whereas vernacular Chinese aims to reflect contemporary speech.

What is the literal meaning of the term *baihuawen*?

The literal meaning of *baihuawen*, which is the Chinese term for Written vernacular Chinese, is 'plain speech writing'. This term reflects its nature as a written form that closely mirrors everyday spoken language.

Which spoken dialect primarily influenced the standard form of Written vernacular Chinese?

A style based on vernacular Mandarin Chinese, specifically the Beijing dialect, was later refined by intellectuals associated with the May Fourth Movement and became the standard form. Initially, Lower Yangtze Mandarin formed the standard, but it was displaced by the Beijing dialect during the late Qing dynasty.

Where is the standard form of Written vernacular Chinese currently used?

The standard form of Written vernacular Chinese, which corresponds to spoken Standard Chinese, is used by speakers of all varieties of Chinese throughout mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore. It serves as the common written language across these regions.

What are some alternative names for the standard form of Written vernacular Chinese?

To distinguish it from spoken vernaculars and other written vernaculars like written Cantonese and written Hokkien, the standard form of Written vernacular Chinese is commonly called Standard Written Chinese or Modern Written Chinese.

How did the spoken and written forms of Chinese evolve during the Zhou dynasty?

During the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), Old Chinese was the spoken form of the language, and this was reflected in the Classical Chinese used to write the Chinese classics. Over time, spoken Chinese evolved more rapidly than the written form, which continued to imitate the classical language.

When did the spoken and written forms of Chinese become completely distinct?

By the Tang and Song dynasties (618–1279), the spoken language had become completely distinct from the formal Literary Chinese. During this period, people began to write in their vernacular dialects through forms like *bianwen* and *yulu*.

What was the role of Literary Chinese in higher education during imperial China?

Familiarity with Literary Chinese was fundamental to higher education in imperial China. It was the formal written language used in scholarly and official contexts, and mastery of it was a prerequisite for intellectual advancement.

When did vernacular language begin to appear in novels and newspapers in China?

During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912), vernacular language started to be used in novels. However, most formal writing remained in Literary Chinese, with the exception of a few *baihua* newspapers that emerged during the late Qing period.

What were the goals of political activists in the 20th century regarding language reform?

In the 20th century, political activists aimed to replace formal Literary Chinese with a written vernacular based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Their proposed reforms included replacing characters with a phonetic writing system, simplifying characters, and expanding the vernacular lexicon with technical terminology to make literature more accessible and increase literacy.

How did Western missionaries contribute to the popularization of written vernacular Chinese?

Western missionaries, who entered China during the 19th century, popularized written vernacular Chinese by writing stories, poems, essays, and other works in vernacular styles. This was done to better spread their message, and their early *baihuawen* was often based on local vernaculars, adapting original texts for a Chinese audience.

What was the initial standard for written vernacular Chinese before the Beijing dialect?

Initially, Lower Yangtze Mandarin served as the standard for written vernacular Chinese. However, it was eventually displaced by the Beijing dialect during the late Qing dynasty, which then became the basis for the standardized written vernacular.

How did the adoption of *baihua* contribute to the standardization of written Chinese across the country?

Although mastering *baihua* was more challenging for writers who spoke other dialects, its use of Lower Yangtze and Beijing grammar and vocabulary made writing understandable to the majority of readers. This standardization of written vernacular Chinese effectively took over the role previously held by Literary Chinese in unifying written communication across China.

What is the basis for the phonology and grammar of modern Standard Chinese?

The phonology of modern Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Its grammar, however, is officially based on exemplary works of vernacular literature, which means it excludes some colloquial forms while incorporating certain constructions from Literary Chinese, foreign loanwords, and a small number of regionalisms from other major dialect groups.

What historical period was characterized by efforts at language reform following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty?

The period following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China was characterized by significant efforts at language reform. This era saw a push to modernize and democratize the Chinese language.

Which movement was associated with the first language reformers of the 20th century?

Many of the first language reformers of the 20th century were associated with the New Culture Movement, which began around 1916. This movement was driven by anti-imperialist and anti-traditionalist sentiments, promoting concepts like republicanism and democracy.

Who were some prominent proponents of vernacularization during the 20th-century language reforms?

Some of the most important proponents of vernacularization included Mao Zedong and the renowned writer Lu Xun. These figures advocated for a shift from classical Chinese to a written vernacular to democratize language.

What were the main points of debate among language reformers regarding the written vernacular?

Reformers debated the extent to which the written vernacular should incorporate elements from classical Chinese and whether Chinese characters should be replaced by an alphabet or another phonetic writing system. These discussions highlighted the complexities of modernizing the language.

What was the initial stance of Mao Zedong and radical activists on Chinese characters?

Mao Zedong and the more radical activists initially argued for replacing Chinese characters with a phonetic writing system. They believed this would facilitate an easier transition from classical Chinese to vernacular language in writing and boost literacy.

How did the Chinese Communist Party's policy on character reform evolve?

As the Communists gained control over mainland China, their thinking shifted. The official goal became to first simplify characters, with a possible transition to a romanized phonetic writing system over time. This eventual transition was indefinitely postponed, making pinyin a complementary system to simplified characters, which remain dominant.

What reasons have been suggested for the Communist leadership's decision to preserve Chinese characters?

It has been suggested that Communist leadership wanted to preserve the cultural heritage associated with Chinese characters while simultaneously encouraging increased literacy among the Chinese people. There is also a suggestion that Joseph Stalin encouraged Mao to preserve characters to maintain a domestic writing system and its linguistic heritage.

Who is considered a pioneer of vernacular Chinese literature in the early modern period?

Jin Shengtan, who edited several vernacular novels in the 17th century, is widely regarded as a pioneer of vernacular Chinese literature. His vernacular edition of the classic novel *Water Margin* significantly elevated the status of such works.

Which activists advocated for the simplicity of *baihua* during the late Qing dynasty?

During the late Qing dynasty, activists such as Liang Qichao argued for the simplicity of *baihua* and its potential utility in increasing literacy rates among the population.

What event significantly boosted the importance of vernacular Chinese writing?

The onset of the May Fourth Movement in 1919, coupled with the promotion of vernacular writing by public intellectuals, greatly increased the widespread importance of vernacular Chinese. This movement marked a turning point in Chinese literary and linguistic history.

Who were some key public intellectuals who promoted vernacular writing after the May Fourth Movement?

Key public intellectuals who promoted vernacular writing after the May Fourth Movement included reformer Hu Shih, writers Chen Hengzhe, Lu Xun, and Qian Xuantong, and the revolutionary Chen Duxiu. Their efforts were crucial in establishing *baihua*.

What is considered the first modern work to fully utilize vernacular language?

Lu Xun's *The True Story of Ah Q* is generally accepted as the first modern work to fully utilize vernacular language, marking a significant milestone in the development of modern Chinese literature.

What ideological characteristic was attributed to *baihua* literature during its early popularization?

During its early popularization, *baihua* literature was also considered to be ideologically progressive. Reformers believed it was a tool for social advancement and modernization in China.

What consensus emerged among reformers regarding Literary Chinese and social progress?

A clear consensus emerged among reformers that the imposition of Literary Chinese was a hindrance to education and literacy, and ultimately to social progress within China. This view was significantly advanced by the work of writers like Lu Xun.

What Western-influenced elements were adopted alongside vernacular writing?

Along with the growing popularity of vernacular writing, the acceptance of punctuation, modeled after Western languages, and the use of Arabic numerals were also adopted. Traditional Chinese literature had previously used almost no punctuation.

How did the 1911 Revolution impact the education system and the use of vernacular Chinese?

Following the 1911 Revolution, successive governments implemented a progressive and national education system that included primary and secondary education. All curricula in this new system were taught in vernacular Chinese, promoting its widespread adoption.

Which prolific writers contributed to the establishment of vernacular written language through popular works and literary journals?

Prolific writers such as Lu Xun and Bing Xin published popular works and appeared in literary journals of the day. These journals also provided a theoretical background for vernacular writing through essays and reviews, like Lu Xun's 'Diary of a Madman'.

What factors contributed to the rapid establishment of the vernacular written language?

The rapid establishment of the vernacular written language was a result of systematic education, the contributions of talented authors, and an active scholastic community closely affiliated with the education system.

In contemporary China, what language is used for most official and legal documents?

Since the late 1920s, nearly all Chinese newspapers, books, and official and legal documents have been written in vernacular Standard Chinese. This reflects its status as the mainstream written language.

How does the formality of vernacular Chinese relate to Literary Chinese?

Modern writing exists on a continuum between vernacular and Literary Chinese; generally, the more formal the register of vernacular Chinese, the greater its resemblance to Literary Chinese. This means that formal vernacular writing may incorporate more classical elements.

Is it common to encounter fully Literary texts in modern times?

It is extremely rare to encounter fully Literary texts in modern times. While some classical elements persist, texts are predominantly written in vernacular Standard Chinese.

What is the current state of Literary Chinese comprehension and writing ability among modern individuals?

Only well-educated individuals in modern times possess full reading comprehension of Literary texts, and very few are able to write proficiently in Literary Chinese. This highlights the shift away from classical writing as a common skill.

How is Literary Chinese taught in contemporary education?

Presently, the ability to read some Literary Chinese is taught using familiar character forms. In mainland China, simplified characters are used, while in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau, traditional characters are employed. For example, Tang poetry is taught from elementary school in the latter regions, and classical prose throughout secondary schools.

Why is an admixture of Literary grammatical constructions and vocabulary considered unavoidable in formal *baihuawen*?

Despite initial intentions to remove classical influences, it became clear that incorporating a certain proportion of Literary grammatical constructions and vocabulary into *baihuawen* was unavoidable. This admixture serves as an important means of conveying tone and register, particularly in official settings like academic and literary works or government communications.

What is the approximate ratio of formal to informal expressions found in typical 20th-century essays and speeches?

Analyses of typical 20th-century essays and speeches have indicated a ratio of formal to informal expressions of around 2:3, or 40% formal. This demonstrates the blend of styles in modern formal written Chinese.

What are *chengyu*, and how are they used in modern Chinese?

*Chengyu* are classical idioms that are used by writers and speakers of all education levels in a variety of contexts in modern Chinese. They represent a persistent classical influence in contemporary language.

What are the characteristics of written vernacular Chinese in mainland China?

In mainland China, written vernacular Chinese uses simplified characters and a lexicon and grammar associated with Putonghua, which is regulated by the State Language Commission.

How does Taiwanese Mandarin differ in its written form from Putonghua?

Taiwanese Mandarin has important differences from Putonghua in terms of vocabulary. It is written using traditional characters and is regulated by the National Languages Committee.

What are the distinguishing features of Hong Kong written Chinese?

Hong Kong written Chinese differs from other forms of written Chinese in its vocabulary and grammar. It is written in traditional characters, is not standardized, and is associated with a phonology derived from Cantonese.

What are the characteristics of Singaporean and Malaysian Mandarin in their written forms?

Singaporean Mandarin and Malaysian Mandarin are both written using simplified characters. They are regulated by the Promote Mandarin Council and the Chinese Language Standardization Council, respectively.

What other Chinese varieties have their own written literature?

There is also literature written in Cantonese, Shanghainese, and Taiwanese Hokkien. These varieties use additional characters to record their distinct vocabulary.

What efforts are being made to standardize the written forms of other Chinese varieties like Southern Min?

Efforts to standardize the written forms of other Chinese varieties include the Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters. These initiatives aim to provide a more consistent written representation for these dialects.

In what contexts are written forms of other Chinese varieties most commonly used?

Written forms of other Chinese varieties, such as Cantonese, Shanghainese, and Taiwanese Hokkien, are most commonly used in advertisements and court records of dialogue and colloquial expressions. They are often mixed with Literary and modern Standard vocabulary.

What does the image caption '20th-century Literary Chinese writing' refer to?

The source material includes an image caption that refers to an example of 20th-century Literary Chinese writing, illustrating the traditional written style that was prevalent before the widespread adoption of vernacular Chinese.

What is *bianwen* and *yulu* in the context of Chinese language history?

*Bianwen* and *yulu* (meaning 'language record') are forms in which people began to write in their vernacular dialects during the Tang and Song dynasties. These represent early attempts to bridge the growing gap between spoken and formal written Chinese.

What was the significance of the May Fourth Movement in the context of Chinese language reform?

The May Fourth Movement, which began in 1919, was a critical period that solidified anti-imperialist and anti-traditionalist sentiments, promoting concepts like republicanism and democracy. It inspired a movement to democratize language and replace classical Chinese with a written vernacular, making *baihuawen* the normal written form of Chinese.

Written Vernacular Chinese Wiki: Baihua Unveiled: The Evolution of Modern Written Chinese

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Introduction to Baihua

Defining Vernacular Chinese

Written vernacular Chinese, commonly known as baihua (˿báihuàwén), represents a pivotal shift in Chinese literary tradition. It encompasses forms of written Chinese that are directly based on the spoken, everyday varieties of the language across China. This stands in stark contrast to Literary Chinese, or Classical Chinese, which served as the dominant written form in imperial China until the early 20th century. The term baihua literally translates to "plain speech writing," signifying its intent to mirror natural spoken language.

Bridging the Spoken and Written Divide

The emergence of baihua addressed a growing chasm between the formal, archaic Literary Chinese and the evolving spoken dialects. While Literary Chinese remained static, preserving the linguistic structures of ancient texts, spoken Chinese underwent significant transformations over centuries. Baihua aimed to bridge this gap, making written communication more accessible and reflective of contemporary speech patterns. Today, a style rooted in vernacular Mandarin Chinese, specifically the Beijing dialect, serves as the standard form of writing across mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore, often referred to as Standard Written Chinese or Modern Written Chinese.

Global Linguistic Significance

The standardization of baihua has profound implications for Chinese literacy and cultural unity. By adopting a written form that aligns with a widely understood spoken dialect, it has facilitated mass education and communication. However, it is important to note that while Standard Written Chinese is prevalent, other written vernaculars, such as written Cantonese and written Hokkien, also exist, reflecting the rich linguistic diversity of the Chinese-speaking world.

Historical Trajectory

From Old Chinese to Literary Divide

During the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), Old Chinese was both the spoken and written language, with Classical Chinese reflecting this in its literary works. However, spoken Chinese began to evolve at a much faster pace than its written counterpart. By the Tang and Song dynasties (618–1279), the spoken language had become entirely distinct from the formal Literary Chinese. This divergence led to the emergence of early vernacular writings like bianwen and yulu ('language record'), which attempted to capture the spoken dialects.

Vernacular in Imperial Literature

Despite the growing gap, familiarity with Literary Chinese remained a cornerstone of higher education throughout imperial China. During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912), vernacular language found its way into novels, marking a significant, albeit informal, use of baihua. However, the vast majority of formal writing, including official documents and scholarly works, continued to be composed in Literary Chinese. Only a few baihua newspapers began to appear in the late Qing period, hinting at the changes to come.^[2]

Missionary Influence

The 19th century saw Western missionaries in China actively popularizing written vernacular Chinese. They produced stories, poems, essays, and other works in local vernaculars to effectively disseminate their message. This early form of baihuawen was not based on a single specific dialect but adapted to local speech, while still retaining some stylistic elements from the original texts, tailored for a Chinese audience.^[4] This effort contributed to the broader recognition of vernacular writing's potential.

20th Century Reforms

The New Culture Movement's Impetus

The early 20th century, following the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China, was a period ripe for language reform. The New Culture Movement, which began around 1916, fueled by anti-imperialist and anti-traditionalist sentiments, championed concepts like republicanism and democracy. These ideals inspired a powerful movement to democratize language by replacing the elitist Classical Chinese with a written vernacular accessible to the broader public.^[5]

Advocates for Vernacularization

Prominent figures such as Mao Zedong and the renowned writer Lu Xun were key proponents of vernacularization. Initially, many radical reformers, including Mao and Lu, advocated for replacing Chinese characters entirely with a phonetic writing system, believing this would accelerate the transition to a vernacular written language and boost literacy. However, as the Chinese Communist Party gained ascendancy, a shift in policy occurred.^[3]

Character Simplification and Standardization

The official goal evolved to first simplify characters, with a potential long-term transition to a romanized phonetic system like Pinyin. This decision, influenced by a desire to preserve China's cultural heritage while promoting literacy, led to simplified characters becoming the dominant writing system in contemporary mainland China.^[3] The phonology of modern Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect, while its grammar draws from exemplary vernacular literature, carefully excluding certain colloquialisms and incorporating some structures from Literary Chinese. This standardized approach also saw the integration of foreign loanwords and a limited number of regionalisms.

The debates among reformers were intense, covering the extent to which the written vernacular should integrate classical elements and whether characters should be replaced by an alphabet. While the precise history of these policy shifts, particularly Chairman Mao's role, remains somewhat obscure, it is suggested that the Communist leadership aimed to balance cultural preservation with the imperative of increasing national literacy.^[3] Some even suggest Joseph Stalin encouraged Mao to retain a domestic writing system to preserve linguistic heritage.^[6] Ultimately, Pinyin became a complementary system to simplified characters, rather than a replacement.^[7]

Literary Renaissance

Pioneers of Vernacular Novels

The early modern period witnessed the foundational development of baihua novels. Jin Shengtan, a 17th-century editor, is widely recognized as a pioneer, whose vernacular edition of Water Margin significantly elevated the status of such novels. Later, during the late Qing, activists like Liang Qichao championed baihua for its simplicity and potential to boost literacy. However, it was the May Fourth Movement in 1919 and the concerted efforts of public intellectuals that truly propelled vernacular Chinese into widespread importance.^[8]

Modern Literary Milestones

Reformers such as Hu Shih, Chen Hengzhe, Lu Xun, Qian Xuantong, and Chen Duxiu were instrumental in promoting vernacular writing. Lu Xun's The True Story of Ah Q is often considered the first modern work to fully embrace vernacular language, marking a new era in Chinese literature.^[8] This period also saw baihua literature imbued with progressive ideological undertones, reflecting the anti-imperialist and anti-traditionalist sentiments of the time.^[9]

Evolving Conventions

The growing popularity of vernacular writing brought with it the acceptance of punctuation, modeled after Western languages, and the adoption of Arabic numerals. Following the 1911 Revolution, a national education system was progressively implemented, with all curricula taught in vernacular Chinese. Prolific authors like Lu Xun and Bing Xin published widely in literary journals, which also provided theoretical backing for vernacular writing, solidifying its place as the mainstream written language.

Since the late 1920s, nearly all Chinese newspapers, books, and official documents have been written in vernacular Standard Chinese. However, the register and vocabulary choice can vary significantly based on context. More formal vernacular Chinese often exhibits a greater resemblance to Literary Chinese. Modern writing exists on a continuum between the two, with fully Literary texts being extremely rare today. While the legal code of the Republic of China was written in Literary Chinese until the 1970s, it incorporated modern expressions. Even in informal communications, classical words and usages, particularly chengyu (four-character idioms), are common across all education levels.^[11] Analyses of 20th-century formal texts suggest a blend of approximately 40% formal (Literary-influenced) expressions with informal ones.^[11]

Regional Variations

Mainland China's Standard

In mainland China, the written vernacular utilizes simplified characters and adheres to a lexicon and grammar associated with Putonghua (Standard Mandarin). This standard is regulated by the State Language Commission, ensuring consistency across official communications, education, and media. The simplification of characters was a key reform aimed at increasing literacy and streamlining written communication.

Taiwanese Mandarin

Taiwanese Mandarin, while based on Mandarin, exhibits notable differences in vocabulary compared to Putonghua. It is written using traditional characters and is regulated by the National Languages Committee. This distinction reflects Taiwan's unique linguistic and cultural development, maintaining a connection to pre-simplification written forms.

Hong Kong's Diverse Script

Hong Kong written Chinese stands apart with its distinct vocabulary and grammatical features. It is predominantly written in traditional characters, but unlike other forms, it is not formally standardized. Its phonology is closely associated with Cantonese, leading to a unique blend of written expression that often incorporates Cantonese-specific vocabulary and grammatical structures, particularly in informal contexts.^[12]^[13]

Southeast Asian Adaptations

Singaporean Mandarin and Malaysian Mandarin are written using simplified characters, aligning with the mainland Chinese standard in this regard. These forms are regulated by the Promote Mandarin Council in Singapore and the Chinese Language Standardization Council in Malaysia, respectively. While sharing the simplified script, these regional varieties may also incorporate local vocabulary and expressions, reflecting the diverse linguistic landscapes of their respective countries.

Beyond Standard Vernaculars

Diverse Written Varieties

Beyond the standardized forms of written vernacular Chinese, there exists a rich tapestry of literature and communication in other Chinese varieties. Notably, Cantonese, Shanghainese, and Taiwanese Hokkien have developed their own written forms. These often employ additional characters to accurately record the unique vocabulary and expressions present in these distinct spoken varieties. This allows for a more precise representation of local speech in written text.

Efforts Towards Standardization

Efforts are underway to standardize these diverse written forms, such as the "Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters" for Taiwanese Hokkien. While these written varieties are most commonly encountered in advertisements, court records of dialogue, and colloquial expressions, they frequently blend with Literary Chinese and modern Standard vocabulary. This creates a dynamic and hybrid written landscape that reflects the ongoing interplay between classical tradition, modern standardization, and regional linguistic identity.

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Baihua Unveiled

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

Introduction to Baihua ℹ️

📜 Defining Vernacular Chinese

🗣️ Bridging the Spoken and Written Divide

🌐 Global Linguistic Significance

Historical Trajectory 🕰️

🏛️ From Old Chinese to Literary Divide

📚 Vernacular in Imperial Literature

🌍 Missionary Influence

20th Century Reforms 💡

✊ The New Culture Movement's Impetus

🗣️ Advocates for Vernacularization

✍️ Character Simplification and Standardization

Literary Renaissance 📚

🖋️ Pioneers of Vernacular Novels

📖 Modern Literary Milestones

📝 Evolving Conventions

Regional Variations 🗺️

🇨🇳 Mainland China's Standard

🇹🇼 Taiwanese Mandarin

🇭🇰 Hong Kong's Diverse Script

🇸🇬🇲🇾 Southeast Asian Adaptations

Beyond Standard Vernaculars ➕

🎭 Diverse Written Varieties

📜 Efforts Towards Standardization

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

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📜 References

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📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

Introduction to Baihua

Defining Vernacular Chinese

Bridging the Spoken and Written Divide

Global Linguistic Significance

Historical Trajectory

From Old Chinese to Literary Divide

Vernacular in Imperial Literature

Missionary Influence

20th Century Reforms

The New Culture Movement's Impetus

Advocates for Vernacularization

Character Simplification and Standardization

Literary Renaissance

Pioneers of Vernacular Novels

Modern Literary Milestones

Evolving Conventions

Regional Variations

Mainland China's Standard

Taiwanese Mandarin

Hong Kong's Diverse Script

Southeast Asian Adaptations

Beyond Standard Vernaculars

Diverse Written Varieties

Efforts Towards Standardization

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice