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The Avesta, the sacred text of Zoroastrianism, is composed exclusively in the Avestan language and alphabet.
Answer: True
The Avesta is indeed the sacred corpus of Zoroastrianism, and all its texts are written in the Avestan language and alphabet.
The term 'Avesta' originates from 9th/10th-century Zoroastrian tradition, where it referred to 'received knowledge' distinct from commentaries.
Answer: True
The term 'Avesta' (Middle Persian 'abestāg') indeed emerged in 9th/10th-century Zoroastrian tradition, signifying 'received knowledge' in contrast to 'zand' (commentaries).
What is the Avesta primarily known as?
Answer: The sacred text corpus of Zoroastrianism.
The Avesta is fundamentally recognized as the sacred text corpus of Zoroastrianism.
From what period does the term 'Avesta' originate, and what did it signify?
Answer: 9th/10th-century Zoroastrian tradition, meaning 'received knowledge'.
The term 'Avesta' emerged in 9th/10th-century Zoroastrian tradition, signifying 'received knowledge' distinct from commentaries.
The individual texts of the Avesta were primarily composed in written form during the Old Iranian period, from the 15th to the 4th century BCE.
Answer: False
The individual texts of the Avesta were primarily composed in *oral* form during the Old Iranian period, not written. Written transmission began much later, during the Sasanian period.
The Sasanian period marked the initiation of the Avesta's written transmission, culminating in a 21-volume edition.
Answer: True
The Sasanian period is indeed recognized as the era when the Avesta was first committed to writing, resulting in a comprehensive 21-volume edition.
The comprehensive Sasanian edition of the Avesta was fully preserved and is entirely accessible today.
Answer: False
The comprehensive Sasanian edition of the Avesta was largely lost after the 10th century CE, with only a small portion surviving through later manuscript traditions.
Avestan texts not in regular liturgical use were more likely to survive after the Sasanian period due to their academic importance.
Answer: False
Conversely, texts in regular liturgical use, known by heart by priests, were more likely to survive, ensuring their continuity, while other literature not part of daily religious practice was often lost.
Zoroastrian tradition attributes the creation of the Avesta's twenty-one nasks to Zoroaster, who then presented them to Ahura Mazda.
Answer: False
Zoroastrian tradition states that the Avesta's nasks were created by Ahura Mazda and brought by Zoroaster to his patron Vishtaspa, not the other way around.
Legends suggest that Alexander the Great was responsible for collecting and preserving the scattered fragments of the Avesta after his conquest.
Answer: False
Zoroastrian legends claim Alexander the Great destroyed or dispersed the Avesta. It was a Parthian emperor named Valaksh who allegedly collected the surviving fragments.
Tansar, a high priest under Ardashir I and Shapur I, is credited with collecting scattered Avestan works during the Sasanian era.
Answer: True
Tansar, a high priest during the early Sasanian period, is indeed traditionally credited with the collection of scattered Avestan works.
Modern scholarship largely supports the traditional Zoroastrian history of the Avesta's transmission, including its early written forms.
Answer: False
Modern scholarship generally rejects the traditional Zoroastrian history of the Avesta's transmission prior to the Sasanian period, instead positing a predominantly oral tradition.
Both Old Avestan and Young Avestan texts were initially transmitted in a fluid oral tradition, allowing for continuous new composition.
Answer: False
Old Avestan texts were transmitted with high accuracy and became fixed early, while Young Avestan texts were initially fluid, allowing for new composition.
The adoption of Zoroastrianism by the Achaemenids is correlated with the 'second crystallization' of Young Avestan texts, leading to their faithful preservation by non-native speakers.
Answer: True
Scholars correlate the 'second crystallization' of Young Avestan texts with the Achaemenid adoption of Zoroastrianism, which led to their faithful preservation by non-native Avestan-speaking priests.
The Avestan corpus was first committed to written form around the 1st century CE, resulting in the 'Parthian archetype'.
Answer: False
The Avestan corpus was first committed to written form around the 5th or 6th century CE, resulting in the 'Sassanian archetype', not the 'Parthian archetype'.
During what estimated period were the individual texts of the Avesta primarily orally composed?
Answer: 15th century BCE to 4th century BCE.
Scholarly estimates place the oral composition of individual Avestan texts within the Old Iranian period, spanning from the 15th century BCE to the 4th century BCE.
What significant development concerning the Avesta occurred during the Sasanian period?
Answer: The beginning of its written transmission and creation of a 21-volume edition.
The Sasanian period was pivotal for the Avesta, marking the commencement of its written transmission and the compilation of a comprehensive 21-volume edition.
What was the fate of the comprehensive Sasanian edition of the Avesta?
Answer: It was lost sometime after the 10th century CE, with only a small portion surviving.
The comprehensive Sasanian edition of the Avesta was largely lost after the 10th century CE, with only fragments surviving through later manuscript traditions.
Why did certain Avestan texts survive while others were lost after the Sasanian period?
Answer: Texts in regular liturgical use, known by heart by priests, ensured their continuity.
The survival of certain Avestan texts after the Sasanian period is attributed to their continuous liturgical use, as priests preserved them through oral tradition.
According to Zoroastrian tradition, who created the Avesta's twenty-one 'nasks'?
Answer: Ahura Mazda.
Zoroastrian tradition attributes the creation of the Avesta's twenty-one 'nasks' to Ahura Mazda.
Which figure is traditionally credited with collecting surviving Avestan fragments after Alexander's conquest?
Answer: A Parthian emperor named Valaksh.
Zoroastrian legends credit a Parthian emperor named Valaksh with collecting the scattered Avestan fragments after Alexander's conquest.
Which Sasanian-era high priest is credited with collecting scattered Avestan works under Ardashir I and Shapur I?
Answer: Tansar.
Tansar, a high priest during the reigns of Ardashir I and Shapur I, is traditionally credited with collecting scattered Avestan works.
How does modern scholarship generally view the pre-Sasanian history of the Avesta's transmission?
Answer: It widely agrees that the texts were primarily handed down orally and independently.
Modern scholarship largely rejects traditional accounts of early written transmission, instead favoring the view that the Avesta was primarily transmitted orally before the Sasanian period.
How did the oral transmission of Old Avestan texts differ from Young Avestan texts?
Answer: Old Avestan texts were transmitted with high accuracy and became fixed early on.
Old Avestan texts were transmitted with high accuracy and became fixed early as a liturgical corpus, contrasting with the initially fluid oral tradition of Young Avestan texts.
What event is correlated with the 'second crystallization' of Young Avestan texts?
Answer: The adoption of Zoroastrianism by the Achaemenids.
The 'second crystallization' of Young Avestan texts is correlated with the adoption of Zoroastrianism by the Achaemenids, which led to their faithful preservation.
When was the Avestan corpus first committed to written form, and what was the resulting master copy called?
Answer: Around the 5th or 6th century CE, known as the 'Sassanian archetype'.
The Avestan corpus was first committed to written form around the 5th or 6th century CE, resulting in the 'Sassanian archetype'.
Modern scholarship identifies Old Avestan and Young Avestan as two distinct chronological layers of Avestan texts.
Answer: True
Modern scholarship indeed distinguishes between Old Avestan and Young Avestan as two separate chronological strata within the Avestan textual corpus.
Old Avestan texts are estimated to have been composed between 1500 and 900 BCE and contain specific geographical references to their place of origin.
Answer: False
While Old Avestan texts are estimated to be from 1500-900 BCE, they notably lack specific geographical references to their place of composition.
Young Avestan texts are believed to have originated in the western portion of Greater Iran, including areas like Media and Persia.
Answer: False
Young Avestan texts are generally believed to have been composed in the *eastern* portion of Greater Iran, including regions such as Sīstān/Arachosia, Herat, Merw, and Bactria.
Grammatical deficiencies in texts like the Vendidad suggest they were redacted long after Avestan ceased to be a spoken language.
Answer: True
Texts such as the Vendidad exhibit pronounced grammatical deficiencies and pieced-together phrases, indicating they were redacted by individuals who no longer had an active command of the Avestan language.
Karl Hoffmann identified that alterations in Avestan texts during oral transmission were solely due to scribal errors during written transcription.
Answer: False
Karl Hoffmann identified multiple factors for alterations in Avestan texts during oral transmission, including recitation modifications, influences from other Iranian languages, and phonetic developments, not solely scribal errors during written transcription.
What are the two distinct chronological layers of Avestan texts identified by modern scholarship?
Answer: Old Avestan and Young Avestan.
Modern scholarship distinguishes between Old Avestan and Young Avestan as the two primary chronological layers of Avestan texts.
What is a key characteristic of Old Avestan texts regarding their geographical origin?
Answer: There are no geographical references to specify their place of composition.
A notable feature of Old Avestan texts is the absence of specific geographical references that would indicate their place of composition.
In which region are Young Avestan texts generally believed to have been composed?
Answer: Eastern portion of Greater Iran.
Young Avestan texts are generally believed to have been composed in the eastern portion of Greater Iran, as indicated by their geographical references.
What linguistic evidence suggests some Avestan texts were redacted long after Avestan ceased to be a spoken language?
Answer: Pronounced grammatical deficiencies and pieced-together phrases.
The presence of pronounced grammatical deficiencies and pieced-together phrases in some Avestan texts suggests they were redacted by individuals who no longer spoke the language.
According to Karl Hoffmann, what was a cause for alterations in Avestan texts during oral transmission?
Answer: Influences from other Iranian languages during transmission.
Karl Hoffmann identified influences from other Iranian languages during transmission as a factor contributing to alterations in Avestan texts during their oral phase.
The oldest extant fragment of an Avestan manuscript, known as K1, dates to 1323 CE and represents a significant portion of a Vendidad Sade manuscript.
Answer: True
The K1 fragment, dating to 1323 CE, is indeed the oldest surviving Avestan manuscript fragment and is part of a Vendidad Sade manuscript.
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron was the first European scholar to publish French translations of Avestan texts after discovering them in India.
Answer: True
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron is recognized as the first European scholar to publish French translations of Avestan texts, which he discovered among Parsi communities in India.
Rasmus Rask initially dismissed Anquetil-Duperron's translations as forgeries but later validated them in the 19th century.
Answer: False
Rasmus Rask vindicated Anquetil-Duperron's translations, which had initially been dismissed as forgeries, by examining the Avestan language, rather than dismissing them himself.
The British Museum houses one of the major collections of Avestan language manuscripts, known as the P-series.
Answer: False
The P-series of Avestan manuscripts is housed at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, while the British Museum houses the L-series.
Friedrich Carl Andreas's 'Parthian archetype' theory was abandoned after Karl Hoffmann demonstrated that inconsistencies in Avestan texts were due to unconscious alterations from oral transmission, not transcription errors from Aramaic scripts.
Answer: True
Karl Hoffmann's work, which attributed textual inconsistencies to unconscious alterations during oral transmission, led to the abandonment of Friedrich Carl Andreas's 'Parthian archetype' theory.
'Sade' or 'Sadah' manuscripts are characterized by their inclusion of extensive Middle Persian translations and commentaries.
Answer: False
'Sade' or 'Sadah' manuscripts are termed 'pure' precisely because they lack translations or commentaries, containing only the Avestan text and liturgical instructions.
Most exegetical Avestan manuscripts include a translation into Middle Persian (Pahlavi), and sometimes into Modern Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.
Answer: True
Exegetical Avestan manuscripts commonly feature translations into Middle Persian (Pahlavi), and occasionally into Modern Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.
Recent discoveries of new Avestan manuscripts, particularly in Iran, have reinforced the assumption that all extant manuscripts derive from a single Sasanian archetype.
Answer: False
Recent discoveries of new Avestan manuscripts, especially in Iran, have challenged the long-held assumption that all extant manuscripts derive from a single Sasanian archetype, highlighting the need for a new edition.
The Avestan Digital Archive (ADA) and the Corpus Avesticum Berolinense (CAB) are projects focused on digitizing manuscripts and editing them within their original ritual context.
Answer: True
The Avestan Digital Archive (ADA) digitizes manuscripts, and the Corpus Avesticum Berolinense (CAB) aims to edit them within their original ritual context, reflecting a modern scholarly approach.
What is the date of the oldest extant fragment of an Avestan manuscript?
Answer: 1323 CE.
The oldest surviving fragment of an Avestan manuscript, known as K1, dates to 1323 CE.
Who was Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron?
Answer: The first European scholar to publish French translations of Avestan texts.
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron was the pioneering European scholar who published the first French translations of Avestan texts after his discoveries in India.
How did Rasmus Rask contribute to Avestan studies in the 19th century?
Answer: He established that Anquetil-Duperron's manuscripts were only a fragment of a larger body of literature.
Rasmus Rask's significant contribution was validating Anquetil-Duperron's translations and demonstrating that his manuscripts represented only a portion of a much larger Avestan corpus.
Which library houses the P-series of Avestan language manuscripts?
Answer: The Bibliothèque nationale de France.
The Bibliothèque nationale de France is home to one of the major collections of Avestan language manuscripts, known as the P-series.
Why was Friedrich Carl Andreas's 'Parthian archetype' theory abandoned?
Answer: Karl Hoffmann demonstrated inconsistencies were due to oral transmission alterations, not transcription errors.
Friedrich Carl Andreas's 'Parthian archetype' theory was abandoned after Karl Hoffmann's research showed that textual inconsistencies arose from unconscious alterations during oral transmission, rather than transcription errors.
What is a defining characteristic of 'Sade' or 'Sadah' Avestan manuscripts?
Answer: They are named 'pure' because they lack translations or commentaries.
'Sade' or 'Sadah' manuscripts are distinguished by their 'pure' nature, meaning they contain only the Avestan text and liturgical instructions, without translations or commentaries.
Which of the following translations are commonly found in exegetical Avestan manuscripts?
Answer: Middle Persian (Pahlavi), Modern Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.
Exegetical Avestan manuscripts frequently include translations into Middle Persian (Pahlavi), and sometimes into Modern Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.
What recent development has challenged the assumption that all extant Avestan manuscripts derive from a single Sasanian archetype?
Answer: The discovery of new manuscripts, particularly in Iran.
The discovery of numerous new Avestan manuscripts, especially in Iran, has challenged the long-held assumption of a single Sasanian archetype for all extant texts.
According to the Denkard, the Sasanian Avesta was structured into 21 nasks, with each nask corresponding to a specific line of the Ahuna Vairya manthra.
Answer: False
The Denkard states the Sasanian Avesta had 21 nasks, mirroring the 21-word Ahuna Vairya manthra, with *each of the prayer's three lines* corresponding to seven volumes, not each nask to a specific line.
The three main groups of nasks in the Sasanian Avesta were the Gathic, Manthric, and Legal groups, each containing seven volumes.
Answer: True
The Sasanian Avesta was indeed organized into three main groups of nasks: Gathic, Manthric, and Legal, with each group comprising seven volumes.
The Stōd-yasn nask from the Gathic group of the Sasanian Avesta is entirely lost and has no surviving components.
Answer: False
The Stōd-yasn nask from the Gathic group is extant within the Staota Yesnya, forming a central part of the High Liturgies.
The Juddēwdād nask is the only nask from the Legal group of the Sasanian Avesta that has survived intact, preserved through the Vendidad manuscripts.
Answer: True
The Juddēwdād nask is indeed the sole intact surviving nask from the Legal group of the Sasanian Avesta, preserved within the Vendidad manuscripts.
According to the Denkard, how was the Sasanian Avesta structured?
Answer: Into 21 'nasks', mirroring the 21-word Ahuna Vairya manthra.
The Denkard describes the Sasanian Avesta as being structured into 21 'nasks,' a number that mirrors the 21-word Ahuna Vairya manthra.
Which of the following was NOT one of the three main groups of nasks in the Sasanian Avesta?
Answer: Historical group.
The three main groups of nasks in the Sasanian Avesta were the Gathic, Manthric, and Legal groups; a 'Historical group' is not identified.
Which nask from the Gathic group of the Sasanian Avesta is still extant in the Staota Yesnya?
Answer: The Stōd-yasn nask.
The Stōd-yasn nask, part of the Gathic group, is extant and forms a component of the Staota Yesnya.
Which nask from the Legal group of the Sasanian Avesta has survived intact?
Answer: The Juddēwdād nask.
The Juddēwdād nask is the only nask from the Legal group of the Sasanian Avesta that has survived intact, preserved through the Vendidad manuscripts.
Geldner's edition of the extant Avesta includes the Yasna, Visperad, and Khordeh Avesta as the three Zoroastrian High Liturgies.
Answer: False
Geldner's edition includes the Yasna, Visperad, and Vendidad as the three Zoroastrian High Liturgies, not the Khordeh Avesta.
The Yasna, meaning 'worship, oblations,' is an Avestan text consisting of 72 sections, with its central part known as the Staota Yesnya.
Answer: True
The Yasna, meaning 'worship, oblations,' is an Avestan text comprising 72 sections ('Ha-iti' or 'Ha'), with its central portion, Yasna 14-58, known as the Staota Yesnya.
The Visperad text is divided into 72 sections called 'Ha,' which are interleaved into the 24 Karde of the Yasna during its liturgy.
Answer: False
The Visperad text is divided into 24 'Karde' sections, which are interleaved into the 72 'Has' of the Yasna during the Visperad liturgy, not the other way around.
The Khordeh Avesta is a collection of Avestan texts primarily intended for priests to perform High Liturgies.
Answer: False
The Khordeh Avesta is primarily intended for lay people for everyday devotions, distinguishing it from the High Liturgies performed by priests.
Khordeh Avesta manuscripts typically contain the five Nyayeshs, the five Gahs, a selection of Yashts, the 30 Sih-rozag, and the four Afrinagan prayers.
Answer: True
Khordeh Avesta manuscripts commonly include the five Nyayeshs, five Gahs, a selection of Yashts, the 30 Sih-rozag, and four Afrinagan prayers.
The Niyayishns are five prayers addressed exclusively to Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster.
Answer: False
The Niyayishns are five prayers addressed to the Sun, Mithra, the Moon, the Waters, and Fire, not exclusively to Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster.
The Yashts are a collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a specific divinity or divine concept, and are transmitted only through pure Yasht manuscripts.
Answer: False
While the Yashts are a collection of 21 hymns dedicated to divinities, they are transmitted through both pure Yasht manuscripts and selections within Khordeh Avesta manuscripts.
The Sih-rozag is an enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities presiding over the days of the month, existing in a short and a long version.
Answer: True
The Sih-rozag is indeed an enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities of the month, and it exists in both a shorter and a longer version.
The Afrinagans are prayers recited during ceremonies, including one for the dead and one for the five epagomenal days.
Answer: True
The Afrinagans are prayers recited during specific ceremonies, including those for the dead and for the five epagomenal days, among others.
The Vendidad's name, Vidēvdāt, means 'Given Against the Demons,' reflecting its content on laws and purity.
Answer: True
The name Vendidad (Vidēvdāt) accurately translates to 'Given Against the Demons,' which aligns with its thematic focus on laws and purity to combat evil forces.
The Vendidad consists of 22 sections called 'Fargards,' which are all of uniform age and character.
Answer: False
While the Vendidad does consist of 22 'Fargards,' these sections vary widely in character and age, with some parts being very old and others potentially composed during the Sasanian period.
The Nerangestan and Hadoxt nask are examples of Avestan fragments that were not included in Geldner's seminal edition.
Answer: True
The Nerangestan and Hadoxt nask are indeed examples of Avestan fragments that were compiled by other authors and not part of Geldner's seminal edition.
Which of the following is NOT considered one of the three Zoroastrian High Liturgies included in Geldner's edition?
Answer: The Khordeh Avesta.
Geldner's edition identifies the Yasna, Visperad, and Vendidad as the three Zoroastrian High Liturgies; the Khordeh Avesta is not among them.
What is the central component of the Yasna, consisting of 72 sections?
Answer: The Staota Yesnya.
The Staota Yesnya, comprising Yasna 14-58, is the central component of the Yasna liturgy, which consists of 72 sections.
How is the Visperad text structured and utilized during its liturgy?
Answer: It is divided into 24 'Karde' sections interleaved into the Yasna.
The Visperad text is structured into 24 'Karde' sections, which are interleaved into the 72 'Has' of the Yasna during the Visperad liturgy.
What is the primary audience for the Khordeh Avesta?
Answer: Lay people for everyday devotions.
The Khordeh Avesta is primarily intended for lay practitioners for their daily devotions, distinguishing it from priestly liturgies.
Which of the following is typically NOT found in Khordeh Avesta manuscripts?
Answer: The complete 21 Yashts.
Khordeh Avesta manuscripts typically contain a *selection* of Yashts, not the complete collection of all 21 Yashts.
To which divinities are the Niyayishns addressed?
Answer: The Sun, Mithra, the Moon, the Waters, and Fire.
The Niyayishns are five prayers addressed to specific divinities: the Sun, Mithra, the Moon, the Waters, and Fire.
What are the Yashts, and how many hymns do they comprise?
Answer: A collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a specific divinity.
The Yashts are a collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a particular divinity or divine concept.
What is the Sih-rozag?
Answer: An enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities presiding over the days of the month.
The Sih-rozag is an enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities associated with the days of the month.
For what ceremonial uses are the Afrinagans typically recited?
Answer: During Afrinagan ceremonies, including one for the dead and one for seasonal feasts.
The Afrinagans are prayers recited during specific Afrinagan ceremonies, such as those for the dead and for seasonal feasts.
What does the name Vendidad, or Vidēvdāt, signify?
Answer: 'Given Against the Demons'.
The name Vendidad, or Vidēvdāt, translates to 'Given Against the Demons,' reflecting its content on laws and purity.
Which of the following is considered an important collection of Avestan 'fragments'?
Answer: The Hadoxt nask.
The Hadoxt nask is recognized as an important collection of Avestan 'fragments,' containing texts of eschatological significance.
Niels Ludvig Westergaard published the first critical edition of the Avesta in the Western world in 1852, based on manuscripts collected by Rasmus Rask.
Answer: True
Niels Ludvig Westergaard is credited with publishing the first critical edition of the Avesta in the Western world in 1852, drawing upon manuscripts gathered by Rasmus Rask.
Friedrich von Spiegel's edition of the Zoroastrian High Liturgies is considered relevant because it was the first to include a complete English translation of the Avestan text.
Answer: False
Friedrich von Spiegel's edition is relevant because it included the Middle Persian translations alongside the Avestan text, which are crucial for understanding, not because it was the first complete English translation.
Karl Friedrich Geldner's edition of the Avesta is considered canonical for scholarly purposes because it was based on a significantly larger number of manuscripts and aimed to reconstruct the original Sasanian Avesta.
Answer: True
Karl Friedrich Geldner's edition is indeed considered canonical due to its extensive manuscript base (133 manuscripts) and its objective to reconstruct the original Sasanian Avesta.
It is assumed that the Sasanian Avesta included a full translation and commentary in Middle Persian, known as Zand.
Answer: True
It is generally assumed that the Sasanian Avesta not only contained the Avestan corpus but also a complete Middle Persian translation and commentary, known as Zand.
James Darmesteter's scholarly translations of the Avesta into English and French were primarily based on directly translating the Avestan language.
Answer: False
James Darmesteter's translations were primarily based on the Middle Persian text of the manuscripts, rather than a direct translation from the Avestan language.
Fritz Wolff's German translation of the Avesta is considered superior to earlier translations because it directly translated the Avestan text using Christian Bartholomae's 'Altiranisches Wörterbuch'.
Answer: True
Fritz Wolff's translation is considered superior because it directly translated the Avestan text, utilizing Christian Bartholomae's 'Altiranisches Wörterbuch', rather than relying on Middle Persian versions.
Who published the first critical edition of the Avesta in the Western world in 1852?
Answer: Niels Ludvig Westergaard.
Niels Ludvig Westergaard published the first critical edition of the Avesta in the Western world in 1852.
What made Friedrich von Spiegel's edition of the Zoroastrian High Liturgies particularly relevant?
Answer: It included the Middle Persian translations alongside the Avestan text.
Friedrich von Spiegel's edition is notable for its inclusion of Middle Persian translations alongside the Avestan text, which are vital for textual interpretation.
Why is Karl Friedrich Geldner's edition considered the standard for the surviving Avestan corpus?
Answer: It was based on significantly more manuscripts (133) and aimed to reconstruct the original Sasanian Avesta.
Karl Friedrich Geldner's edition is the scholarly standard due to its comprehensive use of 133 manuscripts and its objective to reconstruct the original Sasanian Avesta.
What is generally assumed about the Sasanian Avesta regarding translations?
Answer: It included a full translation and commentary in Middle Persian, known as Zand.
It is generally assumed that the Sasanian Avesta included a comprehensive Middle Persian translation and commentary, known as Zand.
What was a characteristic of James Darmesteter's scholarly translations of the Avesta into English and French?
Answer: They were primarily based on the Middle Persian text of the manuscripts.
James Darmesteter's translations were notably based primarily on the Middle Persian text found in the manuscripts, rather than direct Avestan translation.
Why is Fritz Wolff's German translation of the Avesta considered superior to earlier translations?
Answer: It directly translated the Avestan text using Christian Bartholomae's 'Altiranisches Wörterbuch'.
Fritz Wolff's German translation is considered superior because it directly translated the Avestan text, utilizing Christian Bartholomae's 'Altiranisches Wörterbuch' for precision.