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Echoes of Antiquity: The Avesta

Delving into the profound literary corpus that underpins Zoroastrian faith, from ancient oral traditions to modern scholarship.

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What is Avesta?

The Sacred Zoroastrian Corpus

The Avesta represents the foundational body of religious literature for Zoroastrianism. Composed entirely in the ancient Avestan language and transcribed using the unique Avestan alphabet, it serves as the primary textual source for understanding this ancient faith.[1][2] Modern scholarly editions of the Avesta are meticulously compiled from various manuscripts preserved across Zoroastrian communities in India and Iran.[3]

From Oral Tradition to Written Form

Initially, the individual texts comprising the Avesta were oral compositions, developed over several centuries during the Old Iranian period, potentially spanning from the 15th to the 4th century BCE.[4][5] The transition to written form began during the Sasanian period with the creation of the Avestan alphabet, leading to a comprehensive 21-volume edition known as the Sasanian Avesta.[6] Regrettably, this extensive edition was largely lost after the 10th century CE, with only fragments surviving through diverse manuscript traditions. The earliest extant fragment dates to 1323 CE.[7]

Liturgical Preservation

Unlike the thematically organized Sasanian Avesta, the surviving Avestan manuscripts are structured according to the specific religious ceremonies in which they are employed.[8] This ritualistic integration is believed to be the primary reason for their enduring preservation through the centuries.[9] The central text is the Yasna, named after its corresponding liturgy. Other significant texts include the Vendidad and Visperad, which extend the Yasna ceremony, and the shorter liturgical texts compiled in the Khordeh Avesta, or "Little Avesta."[10]

Etymology of "Avesta"

Derived from Middle Persian

The term "Avesta" itself originates from the Middle Persian word abestāg, found in Zoroastrian texts from the 9th and 10th centuries.[11][12] In this context, abestāg refers to "received knowledge," explicitly distinguishing these sacred texts from their exegetical commentaries, known as the zand.

Uncertain Linguistic Roots

While it is generally accepted that abestāg is a learned borrowing from Avestan, its precise literal meaning remains a subject of scholarly debate. Numerous etymologies have been proposed, yet none have achieved universal acceptance. A frequently cited derivation, from the reconstructed Old Iranian term *upa-stavaka, suggesting "praise-song," was put forth by Christian Bartholomae in 1904. However, this hypothetical word is not actually attested in any surviving text, leaving its origins somewhat enigmatic.

Historical Trajectories

Zoroastrian Traditional Accounts

Zoroastrian tradition recounts a rich, albeit legendary, history of the Avesta. According to 9th-11th century "Pahlavi books," the 21 nasks (volumes) of the Avesta were divinely created by Ahura Mazda and delivered by Zoroaster to his patron, Vishtaspa.[13] It is said that Vishtaspa, or another Kayanian ruler named Daray, commissioned two copies: one for the royal treasury and another for the archives.[14]

  • Alexander's Conquest: Following Alexander the Great's conquest, the Avesta was purportedly destroyed or scattered by the Greeks, who first translated any scientific passages they deemed useful.[15]
  • Parthian Restoration: Centuries later, a Parthian emperor, Valaksh (one of the Vologases), is credited with collecting the surviving fragments, including those previously written down and those preserved solely through oral transmission.[15]
  • Sasanian Recensions: The Denkard further attributes the collation and recension of the Avesta to early Sasanian high priests. Tansar (under Ardashir I and Shapur I) collected scattered works, approving only a portion as authoritative.[16] His work was reportedly completed by Adurbad Mahraspandan (under Shapur II), who revised the canon to ensure orthodoxy.[17] A final revision is said to have occurred in the 6th century CE under Khosrow I.[18]

Modern Scholarly Perspectives

Contemporary scholarship largely diverges from the traditional Zoroastrian accounts regarding the Avesta's pre-Sasanian written history.[19] A broad consensus now holds that for most of its extensive history, the various Avestan texts were transmitted orally and independently.[19] Linguistic analysis has identified distinct phases of composition, transmission, and redaction by Zoroastrian priests.[20][21][22]

Time and Place of Composition

  • Old Avestan: Scholars suggest a composition period between 1500 and 900 BCE, with many favoring a date near 1000 BCE.[23][24] The absence of geographical references makes precise localization impossible.[25]
  • Young Avestan: These texts, forming the majority of the extant Avesta, originated centuries later, likely between 900 and 400 BCE.[26][27] Geographical references in Young Avestan texts point to their composition in the eastern part of Greater Iran, encompassing regions like Sistan/Arachosia, Herat, Merw, and Bactria.[28]

Oral and Written Transmission

  • Oral Crystallization: Old Avestan texts, particularly the Gathic material, achieved a fixed form early on and were transmitted with remarkable accuracy.[22][31] Young Avestan texts, however, remained fluid for a longer period, being partly recomposed by successive generations of poet-priests.[31] This fluidity eventually ceased, and the Young Avestan texts also became fixed during the Old Iranian period, prior to developing Middle Iranian characteristics.[32][33]
  • Western Iranian Influence: The subsequent transmission largely occurred in Western Iran, evidenced by alterations introduced by native Persian speakers.[34] Scholars suggest this second crystallization correlates with the Achaemenid adoption of Zoroastrianism, leading Persian and Median priests to become primary transmitters, preserving the texts as faithfully as possible despite not being native Avestan speakers.[35][36][37]
  • Sasanian Written Form: The Avestan corpus was finally committed to writing around the 5th or 6th century CE, resulting in the Sasanian Avesta.[7] This marked a pivotal shift from purely oral to written transmission.[38] The surviving texts today derive from a single, now-lost "Sasanian archetype." The oldest surviving manuscript fragment (K1) dates to 1323 CE.[7]
  • Post-Sasanian Decline: The post-Sasanian era saw a significant decline in the Avestan corpus. While 9th/10th-century summaries indicate a much larger Sasanian Avesta, only about a quarter of the original sentences or verses are found today. Juridical, historical, and legendary texts were lost. However, the most valuable and oldest portions, those in regular liturgical use and memorized by priests, were preserved.[10]

Avestan Studies & European Discovery

The Dawn of Western Scholarship

The study of Zoroastrianism in Western countries commenced relatively late, in the 18th century, due to the delayed availability of Avestan manuscripts to European scholars.[39] A pivotal moment occurred in 1755 when Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron traveled to India. There, he discovered Avestan texts among the Parsi communities and subsequently published French translations in 1771, based on the interpretations of a Parsi priest.

Validation and Expansion

Initially, Anquetil-Duperron's translations faced skepticism, being dismissed by some as forgeries in poor Sanskrit. However, his work was ultimately vindicated in the 1820s by Rasmus Rask, whose examination of the Avestan language confirmed its authenticity. Rask further established that Anquetil-Duperron's manuscripts represented only a fragment of a much more extensive body of sacred literature. Today, Anquetil-Duperron's manuscripts are housed at the Bibliothèque nationale de France ('P'-series), while Rask's collection resides in the Royal Library, Denmark ('K'-series). Other significant collections are found at the British Museum ('L'-series), the K. R. Cama Oriental Library in Mumbai, the Meherji Rana library in Navsari, and various European university and national libraries.

The "Archetype" Debate

In the early 20th century, the Zoroastrian legend of a Parthian-era collation spurred a search for a "Parthian archetype" of the Avesta. Friedrich Carl Andreas (1902) theorized that the archaic nature of the texts stemmed from written preservation, with unusual spellings attributed to errors during Sasanian-era transcription from Aramaic alphabet-derived Pahlavi scripts.[40] However, this theory faced increasing criticism and was abandoned in the 1950s. Karl Hoffmann demonstrated that these inconsistencies were, in fact, due to unconscious alterations introduced during oral transmission, including modifications from recitation, influences from other Iranian languages during transmission routes, and phonetic developments within the Avestan language itself.[41][42][43]

Manuscript Traditions

Diverse Surviving Texts

Following the loss of the comprehensive Sasanian Avesta, the Avestan corpus persisted through numerous individual manuscript traditions.[44] These manuscripts predominantly align with the specific liturgies in which they are utilized, a practice believed to have been crucial for their survival.[45][46] While the oldest surviving fragment dates to 1323 CE, the majority of extant manuscripts originate from after the 17th century.[47] Currently, over 300 such manuscripts have been cataloged.[48]

Classification Criteria

In modern scholarship, Avestan manuscripts are typically classified based on several key criteria:

  • Liturgy: Manuscripts are grouped by the specific Zoroastrian liturgy they serve, such as the Yasna, Vendidad, or Visperad.[49]
  • Origin: Their geographical origin, whether from Iranian or Indian Zoroastrian communities, is another important distinction.[50]
  • Purpose: Manuscripts are also categorized by their intended use, primarily liturgical or exegetical.[51]

Sade manuscripts, meaning "pure," contain only the Avestan text along with liturgical instructions, intended for ritual performance.[52] In contrast, exegetical manuscripts include the Avestan text alongside a translation, most commonly into Middle Persian (Pahlavi), but also into Modern Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.[53]

Geldner's Seminal Analysis

The most influential analysis of Avestan manuscripts was conducted by Karl Friedrich Geldner for his comprehensive edition of the Avesta. In the Prolegomena to his edition, Geldner provided a detailed critical apparatus, meticulously outlining the stemmatics (genealogical relationships) of the manuscripts he utilized.[54] This work remains a cornerstone for Avestan textual criticism.

Scholarly Editions & Digital Futures

The Lost Sasanian Canon

The Avestan literary corpus, initially a product of an oral priestly culture during the Old Iranian Avestan period, was eventually compiled into an authoritative edition by the Zoroastrian priesthood during the Sasanian period.[55][56] This significant Sasanian Avesta, described in 10th-century Zoroastrian literature, was unfortunately lost at an undetermined later time.[56] Since its disappearance, the Zoroastrian community has not produced a new, universally authoritative edition of the scattered Avestan texts.

Early Critical Editions

With the introduction of Avestan manuscripts to the Western world, scholars embarked on creating critical editions from the diverse surviving texts. The first such critical edition was published in 1852 by Niels Ludvig Westergaard, primarily based on manuscripts collected by Rasmus Rask.[57][58] Concurrently, Friedrich von Spiegel published an edition of the Zoroastrian High Liturgies (Yasna, Visperad, Vendidad), notable for including Middle Persian translations alongside the Avestan text, which proved invaluable for comprehension.[59]

Geldner's Standard Work

Between 1886 and 1896, Karl Friedrich Geldner produced a monumental edition encompassing the Yasna, Visperad, Khordeh Avesta, and Vendidad.[54][60][61] This work, based on a significantly larger number of manuscripts (133 in total), aimed to reconstruct the earliest common ancestor of the texts, effectively striving to revert to the Sasanian Avesta.[62][63] Geldner's edition has since remained the canonical text for scholarly purposes in Avestan studies.[64][65][66]

The Digital Horizon

Recent developments have highlighted the need for new editions, particularly with the discovery of numerous previously unknown Avestan manuscripts in Iran. These new findings challenge the long-held belief that all extant manuscripts derive from a single Sasanian archetype.[67] Furthermore, contemporary scholarship increasingly views the surviving Avestan texts as direct witnesses of a vibrant, living liturgical tradition, which existed in parallel to the exegetical tradition of the Sasanian Avesta.[68]

In response to these insights, digital initiatives are transforming Avestan studies:

  • Avestan Digital Archive (ADA): As of 2013, ADA has digitized approximately 150 manuscripts, with about 80 made accessible online, aiming to publish all Avestan manuscripts digitally.[69]
  • Corpus Avesticum Berolinense (CAB): This project focuses on editing manuscripts within their original ritual context, presenting the ritual system as it operated in 16th-century Iran, primarily using manuscript evidence.[70]

Structure & Content of the Avesta

The Sasanian Avesta: A Lost Canon

According to the Denkard, the Sasanian Avesta was systematically organized into 21 nasks (volumes). This structure mirrored the 21-word Ahuna Vairya manthra, a significant Zoroastrian prayer, with each of its three lines corresponding to seven volumes.[71][72] Each volume was originally named after a word from this prayer, indicating its position within the canon.[71]

  • Gathic Group: The first group contained the Gathas and extensive commentaries. It included the Stōd-yasn (extant in the Staota Yesnya), Sudgar, Warshtmansr, Bag, Waštag, Hadoxt, and Spand nasks. Most of these are now lost or survive only as fragments.[73]
  • Manthric Group: This second group was believed to connect the first and third groups, comprising the Dāmdād, Nāxtar, Pāzag, Raθβištāiti, Bariš, Kaškaysraw, and Wištāsp-sāst nasks. Only the Wištāsp-sāst nask might be partially extant in fragment collections; the others are lost.[73][74]
  • Legal Group: The third group focused on Zoroastrian jurisprudence, including the Nikātum, Duzd-sar-nizad, Huspāram, Sakātum, Juddēwdād (Vendidad), Čihrdād, and Bagān Yašt nasks.[73] The Bagān Yašt contained most of the extant Yashts, and the Huspāram nask included the Herbedestan and Nerangestan texts. The Juddēwdād nask is uniquely preserved intact as the Vendidad.[75]

The Extant Avesta: Geldner's Edition

Modern Avestan manuscripts do not adhere to the Sasanian nask division but are organized by their liturgical use. Karl Friedrich Geldner's scholarly edition, though not religiously canonical, is the most important and widely accepted for academic purposes.[76][77][78] It includes the three Zoroastrian High Liturgies and the Khordeh Avesta.

Yasna

The Yasna (from yazišn, "worship, oblations") is recited during the primary Yasna liturgy. It comprises 72 sections (Ha-iti or Ha), with its core, Yasna 14-58, forming the Staota Yesnya, a volume from the Sasanian Avesta.[79] Geldner's edition of the Yasna is found in the first volume of his series.[54]

Visperad

The Visperad (from vīspe ratavo, "prayer to all patrons") is used in the Visperad liturgy, consisting of 24 sections (Karde) interleaved with the Yasna's 72 Has.[80] Geldner's edition, based on 26 manuscripts, primarily follows the Visperad Sade manuscripts and was published in his second volume.[81][82]

Khordeh Avesta

The Khordeh Avesta ("Little Avesta") is a collection of Avestan texts intended for daily devotions by lay people, distinct from the priestly High Liturgies.[83][84] Its content varies but commonly includes:[85]

  • Niyayishns: Five prayers for regular recitation, addressed to deities like the Sun, Mithra, Moon, Waters, and Fire. These are composite texts.[10]
  • Gāhs: Five invocations to divinities overseeing the day's five divisions, similar in structure to the Niyayishns.[10]
  • Yashts: A collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a specific divinity or divine concept.[86] They appear in dedicated Yasht manuscripts or as selections in Khordeh Avesta manuscripts.[87]
  • Sih-rozag: An enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities presiding over the days of the month. It exists in shorter (brief enumeration) and longer (complete sentences) forms, used for inserting specific invocations into liturgies.[88]
  • Afrinagans: Prayers recited during Afrinagan ceremonies, typically four prayers honoring the dead, for epagomenal days, seasonal feasts, and the beginning/end of summer.[89][90]

Vendidad

The Vendidad (or Vidēvdāt, "Given Against the Demons") is an Avestan text integral to the eponymous Vendidad liturgy, an extension of the Visperad. It contains 22 sections (Fargards), framed by discussions (Frashna) between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. Its content varies in character and age, with some parts potentially from the Sasanian period, though much is very ancient.[91] The Vendidad was originally the legal Juddēwdād nask of the Sasanian Avesta, making it the only Sasanian nask to survive in its original form.[91] It exists in two manuscript traditions: Vendidad Pahlavi (with Zand translation) and Vendidad Sade (describing the liturgy, including Yasna, Visperad, and Vendidad texts). Geldner's edition focused solely on the Avestan text of the 22 Fargards.[61]

Fragments

Beyond the major liturgical texts, numerous minor or incomplete Avestan texts are compiled into over 20 fragment collections. Notable examples include the Nerangestan, Herbedestan, Wishtasp Sast, Pursishniha ("questions," also known as "Fragments Tahmuras"), and the Hadoxt nask, which contains two fragments of eschatological significance.[92]

Translations & Interpretations

The Ancient Zand

It is widely presumed that the Sasanian Avesta not only comprised a comprehensive edition of the Avestan corpus but also included a complete translation and commentary in Middle Persian, known as the Zand.[93] This assumption is supported by references to the Sasanian Avesta often quoting from the Middle Persian translation, and by the fact that surviving texts like the Vendidad, Herbedestan, and Nerangestan all incorporate a Zand.[94] These ancient translations are generally considered the oldest and most faithful interpretations of the Avestan texts.[95]

Modern Scholarly Renderings

Following the introduction of the Avestan corpus to the Western world, a series of scholarly translations emerged:

  • James Darmesteter: Produced the earliest English translations between 1880 and 1887,[96][97][98] followed by French translations from 1892 to 1893.[99][100][101] However, these were largely based on the Middle Persian text of the manuscripts.[102]
  • Fritz Wolff: In 1910, Wolff published a German translation of the Avesta.[103] Critically, this translation directly rendered the Avestan text using Christian Bartholomae's Altiranisches Wörterbuch. Consequently, Wolff's translation is generally regarded as superior in its direct engagement with the original Avestan language.[104]

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References

References

  1.  For a summary of Andreas' theory, see Schlerath (1987), pp. 29–30.
  2.  Vevaina 2013, p. 996: "The Avesta, conventionally referred to as the “Sacred Book of the Persians” is, in fact, an orally transmitted, liturgically based, corpus redacted by the Zoroastrian priesthood".
  3.  Cantera 2012, "The Avestan texts were probably composed in Eastern Iran between the second half of the 2nd millennium bce and the end of the Achaemenid dynasty".
  4.  Kellens 1987, "The Sasanian Avesta. It has now been established beyond any doubt that the known Avestan Vulgate originates from a canon which was arranged and written down under the Sasanians".
  5.  Cantera 2012, "Almost all Avestan texts preserved in the manuscripts are ritual texts performed in the different Zoroastrian rituals".
  6.  West 1892, chap. Introduction: "[B]ut when, through conversion and extermination, the Mazda-worshippers had become a mere remnant, [...] they rapidly lost all their old literature that was not in daily religious use".
  7.  Daniel 2012, p. 47: "All in all, it seems likely that Zoroaster and the Avestan people flourished in eastern Iran at a much earlier date (anywhere from 1500 to 900 B.C.".
  8.  Hale 2004, p. 742: "Current scholarly consensus places his life considerably earlier than the traditional Zoroastrian sources are thought to, favoring a birth date before 1000 BC".
  9.  Grenet 2015, p. 21: "Does the Avesta contain any reliable evidence concerning the place where the "real" Zarathustra (i.e., the person repeatedly mentioned in the Gāthās) lived? The answer is no".
  10.  Hintze 2015, p. 38: "Linguistic, literary and conceptual characteristics suggest that the Old(er) Avesta pre‐dates the Young(er) Avesta by several centuries.".
  11.  Malandra 2006, "[I]t is the piecing together of separately good Avestan phrases by someone who could not compose Avestan, yet who could produce, nonetheless, an intelligible statement".
  12.  de Vaan & Martínez García 2014, pp.5-6.
  13.  Cantera 2013, p. 345: "Die meisten dieser Handschriften enthalten Sprechgesang zoroastrischer Liturgien".
  14.  Cantera 2022, "Most non-ritual Avestan texts were therefore lost at an unspecified time.
  15.  Cantera 2013, p. 345: "Die Zahl erhaltener avestischer Handschriften betragt mehr als 300".
  16.  Kellens 1987, "[T]he names of the manuscript families indicate the text (Yasna, Visprad, etc.)".
  17.  Cantera 2015b, p. 41: "The manuscripts can be further classified according to their use".
  18.  Kellens 1987, "The manuscripts that contain only the Avestan text are called sāda 'pure'".
  19.  Cantera 2015a, "The manuscripts transmitting the preserved Avestan texts often also include their translation into Pahlavi [PT], the Zoroastrian Middle Persian language".
  20.  Kellens 1987, "The Sasanian collection of the Avesta and its commentary (zand) is described in chap. 8 of the Dēnkard; it was probably composed of three books of seven chapters [...]".
  21.  Hintze 2012, p. 420: "Westergaard chiefly based his edition on the manuscripts which Rasmus Rask had brought to Copenhagen [and] manuscripts from various private collections".
  22.  Schmitt 2002, "So Spiegel' edition [included], in contrast to Westergaard’s work, the Middle Persian rendering of the Avestan texts, which are often important for understanding them".
  23.  Gholami 2024, p.19: "Geldner's edition has been considered the canonical text to date".
  24.  Gholami 2024, p.19: "Geldner and Westergaard were of the opinion that all the surviving manuscripts had been based on one copy; thus, the aim of these scholars was to reconstruct the original text".
  25.  Cantera 2012, p. VIII: "N. L. Westergaard tries in his edition to reconstruct as far as possible the original Sasanian Avesta. K. F. Geldner's edition had a similar purpose".
  26.  Redard 2021, p. 1: "During recent years certain shortcomings in [Geldner's] edition have been brought to notice by scholars, and some scholars have argued that it should now be replaced by a new edition".
  27.  Cantera 2022, "In Sasanian times, there were two parallel collections: the Great Avesta and the Ritual Avesta. The extant Avesta known from the manuscripts derives from the latter".
  28.  Kellens 1987, "The Sasanian collection of the Avesta [...] was probably composed of three books of seven chapters [...]".
  29.  West 1892, p. 24: "'The last number refers, no doubt, to the eight fargards still extant under the corrupt name Vishtasp Yasht, which probably consist of fragments of the Avesta text of this Nask".
  30.  Redard 2021, p. 1: "Geldner’s edition, became the reference edition".
  31.  Gholami 2024, p. 19: "Geldner's edition has been considered the canonical text to date".
  32.  Geldner 1889, Intro: "The text is given according to the Visperad sada".
  33.  Malandra 2000c, "KHORDEH AVESTĀ (Pahlavi xwardag aβistāg) “The Little Avesta,” the name given to a collection of texts used primarily by the laity for everyday devotions".
  34.  Malandra 2000c, "Thus, it excludes the high liturgy of the priestly ritual, namely, the Yasna, Visperad, and Vendidād".
  35.  Hintze 2014, "YAÅ TS, the group of 21 Avestan hymns in praise of various deities of the Zoroastrian pantheon".
  36.  Hintze 2014, "The YaÅ¡ts are transmitted in two types of manuscript: Khorde Avestas and pure YaÅ¡t codices".
  37.  Kellens 1987, "The fragments. In addition to the complete texts, more than twenty groups of fragments are known".
  38.  Cantera 2004, p. 134: "da in diesem Kanon die Pahlavi Übersetzung enthalten war".
  39.  Cantera 2015a, "We distinguish at least three chronological levels: (1) old translations like the VÄ«dēvdād, Nērangestān, and Hērbedestān".
  40.  Kellens 1987, "Darmesteter, whose translation follows the Pahlavi version".
  41.  Kellens 1987, "As a rule, Wolff is more reliable than Darmesteter".
A full list of references for this article are available at the Avesta Wikipedia page

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