What is anencephaly, and what are its defining characteristics?

Anencephaly is a severe cephalic disorder characterized by the absence of a major portion of the brain, skull, and scalp that occurs during embryonic development. It results from the failure of the rostral (head) end of the neural tube to close, typically between the 23rd and 26th day after conception. While the name implies a complete absence of the brain, it usually means the absence of the telencephalon, which is the largest part of the brain responsible for cognition, including the neocortex. The remaining structure is often covered only by a thin membrane, lacking bone, meninges, and scalp.

How does anencephaly develop during embryonic development?

Anencephaly develops when the neural tube, a structure that forms the central nervous system, fails to close properly at its head end during embryonic development. This specific failure, known as a neural tube defect, typically occurs between the 23rd and 26th day following conception. The incomplete closure leads to the absence of significant portions of the brain, skull, and scalp.

What specific parts of the brain are typically absent in an infant with anencephaly?

In infants with anencephaly, the primary part of the brain that is absent is the telencephalon. This is the largest section of the brain, which includes the cerebral hemispheres and the neocortex, structures crucial for higher cognitive functions. While the term "anencephaly" literally means "without a brain," infants with this condition usually possess a brain stem, allowing for some basic reflex actions.

What is the typical prognosis for infants born with anencephaly?

The prognosis for infants born with anencephaly is extremely poor. With very few exceptions, these infants do not survive longer than a few hours or days after birth, often succumbing to cardiorespiratory arrest. The condition is generally considered incompatible with prolonged postnatal survival, and surgical intervention is not typically indicated.

What are the observable signs and symptoms in a baby born with anencephaly?

A baby born with anencephaly is typically blind, deaf, and unaware of their surroundings. They are also unable to feel pain. While a brain stem might be present, the absence of a functioning cerebrum means they cannot gain awareness. However, reflex actions such as breathing and responses to sound or touch may still occur.

What role does folic acid play in the prevention of anencephaly?

Folic acid is crucial for proper neural tube formation. Studies have shown that supplementing the diet of women of child-bearing age with folic acid can significantly reduce the incidence of neural tube defects, including anencephaly, although it does not eliminate the risk entirely. Therefore, it is recommended that women consume 0.4 mg of folic acid daily, especially if they are planning to conceive or could become pregnant, as this can lower the risk to 0.03%.

When should women of child-bearing age start taking folic acid to reduce the risk of neural tube defects?

It is advisable for women of child-bearing age to start taking folic acid before pregnancy begins. This is because the critical period for neural tube formation occurs very early in pregnancy, often before a woman realizes she is pregnant. Waiting until pregnancy is confirmed may be too late to prevent such defects.

Are there specific situations where higher doses of folic acid are recommended?

Yes, physicians may prescribe higher dosages of folic acid, such as 5 mg per day, for women who have previously had a pregnancy affected by a neural tube defect. This increased intake aims to further reduce the risk of recurrence in subsequent pregnancies.

Can anencephaly be inherited, and what genetic factors are implicated?

Neural tube defects, including anencephaly, can follow patterns of heredity. Direct evidence suggests autosomal recessive inheritance. Research has identified the homozygous inactivation of the NUAK2 kinase as a cause of anencephaly in humans. Additionally, animal models suggest a possible link to deficiencies in the transcription factor TEAD2.

What is the increased risk of having another child with a neural tube defect after already having one affected child?

A woman who has had one child with a neural tube defect, such as anencephaly, has approximately a 3% risk of having another child with a neural tube defect. This is significantly higher than the background occurrence rate of about 0.1% in the general population. Genetic counseling is often recommended for women at higher risk.

What are some other risk factors that can increase the likelihood of having a child with a neural tube defect?

Certain medical conditions and medications in the mother can increase the risk of neural tube defects. These include taking specific anticonvulsant medications and having insulin-dependent diabetes. Obesity in the mother has also been identified as a contributing risk factor.

How is anencephaly related to genetic ciliopathies?

Anencephaly is considered part of an emerging class of genetic disorders known as ciliopathies. These disorders arise from dysfunctional molecular mechanisms within the primary cilia of cells. These cilia are organelles present in many cell types, and their defects can disrupt crucial developmental signaling pathways, potentially explaining the multi-symptom nature of various genetic syndromes and diseases, including anencephaly.

What are some examples of other known ciliopathies?

Other known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, and certain forms of retinal degeneration. These conditions, like anencephaly, stem from issues with cellular cilia.

How can anencephaly be diagnosed?

Anencephaly can often be diagnosed before birth through medical imaging and screening tests. Ultrasound examinations are a primary method for diagnosis. Additionally, maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) screening and detailed fetal ultrasounds can be useful in identifying neural tube defects like anencephaly and spina bifida.

What is meroanencephaly, and what are its defining features?

Meroanencephaly is a rare variant of anencephaly. It is characterized by malformed cranial bones, a defect in the midline of the skull, and a protrusion known as the area cerebrovasculosa. This protrusion consists of abnormal, spongy vascular tissue mixed with glial tissue, which can range from a thin membrane to a substantial mass.

Can you describe holoanencephaly?

Holoanencephaly is the most common type of anencephaly, where the brain has failed to form almost entirely, with the exception of the brain stem. Infants born with holoanencephaly typically survive for less than one day after birth.

What is craniorachischisis, and how does it differ from other forms of anencephaly?

Craniorachischisis is considered the most severe type of anencephaly. It is characterized by the presence of the area cerebrovasculosa and area medullovasculosa filling not only the cranial defects but also extending into the spinal column. This condition involves bony defects in the spine and exposure of neural tissue due to the failure of the skull vault to form.

What is the typical outcome for infants diagnosed with craniorachischisis?

Craniorachischisis is a severe condition. While the text mentions that physical and chemical tests can detect neural tube closure during early pregnancy, it is associated with significant malformations of the skull and spine. Given its severity as a form of anencephaly, the prognosis is extremely poor, with most affected infants not surviving birth or dying shortly after.

What are the treatment and cure options for anencephaly?

Currently, there is no cure or standard medical treatment for anencephaly. The condition is considered fatal, and medical care focuses on supportive measures and managing the prognosis, which is extremely poor.

What is the reported frequency of anencephaly in the United States?

In the United States, anencephaly occurs in approximately 1 out of every 4600 births. This statistic provides a baseline for its prevalence in the U.S. population.

Are there geographical or ethnic variations in the occurrence of anencephaly?

Yes, there appear to be variations in anencephaly rates. Rates may be higher among people of African descent, with specific estimates for Nigeria and Ghana mentioned. China also has reported rates. The text notes a specific cluster in Brownsville, Texas, which prompted further investigation.

What factors were identified in the Brownsville, Texas cluster that contributed to neural tube defects?

Investigations into the anencephaly cluster in Brownsville, Texas, identified several contributing risk factors. These included folic acid deficiency, low levels of serum vitamin B12, high serum homocysteine levels, and obesity. Increasing dietary folate intake was found to have a protective effect.

Is there a difference in the likelihood of anencephaly between male and female infants?

Research suggests that female babies are more likely to be affected by anencephaly than male babies. This observed sex ratio is a noted epidemiological characteristic of the disorder.

What are the primary ethical considerations surrounding anencephalic newborns, particularly concerning organ donation?

A significant ethical issue involves organ donation from anencephalic newborns. This is complicated by the scarcity of infant organs and the high demand for pediatric transplants. Ethical debates center on potential misdiagnosis, the "slippery slope" argument (that using anencephalic infants could lead to using other vulnerable individuals), the limited number of anencephalic infants who survive birth long enough for organ procurement, and maintaining public confidence in organ transplantation.

How did the case of "Baby Theresa" influence the debate on organ donation from anencephalic infants?

The case of Baby Theresa in 1992 was pivotal in testing the boundaries of organ donation for anencephalic newborns. Her parents wished to donate her organs, but Florida law prohibited removing organs from a living infant. By the time she died nine days later, her organs were no longer viable, highlighting the legal and ethical challenges in such situations.

What are some proposed solutions to the ethical and legal challenges of organ donation from anencephalic infants?

Several proposals have been made to address the ethical and legal complexities of organ donation from anencephalic infants. These include waiting for natural death before organ procurement, expanding the definition of death, creating a special legal category for these infants, or defining them as non-persons to facilitate donation.

Can anencephalic infants serve as organ donors in the UK, and what is an example?

Yes, anencephalic infants can serve as organ donors. The case of Teddy Houlston in the UK is an example, where his parents chose to donate his heart and kidneys after he lived for 100 minutes following his birth. His kidneys were successfully transplanted into an adult recipient.

What are the different concepts used to determine brain death, and how might they relate to anencephaly?

The four concepts used to determine brain death are: failure of heart function, failure of lung function, whole brain death (cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem), and neocortical death (loss of cognitive functioning). Neocortical death, which is similar to a persistent vegetative state, is particularly relevant to discussions about anencephaly due to the absence of the cerebrum and neocortex.

What are the legal implications regarding pregnancy termination when anencephaly is diagnosed?

The option of abortion when anencephaly is diagnosed depends on the specific abortion laws of the jurisdiction. While anencephaly is a fatal condition, legal frameworks vary globally, with some countries prohibiting abortion even in such cases. Brazil, for instance, extended the right to abortion for mothers with anencephalic fetuses, though this decision faced opposition from religious groups.

What legislative proposals have been made in the United States concerning anencephalic infants and death determination or organ donation?

In the U.S., legislative proposals have aimed to address the legal status of anencephalic infants regarding death and organ donation. For example, California Senate Bill 2018 proposed amending the UDDA to define anencephalic infants as already dead, while New Jersey Assembly Bill 3367 suggested allowing them to be organ sources even if not legally declared dead.

What research has been conducted into the genetic causes of anencephaly?

Genetic research has explored the causes of anencephaly. Studies have mapped the CART1 gene (cartilage homeoprotein) to chromosome 12q21.3–q22. Research in mice has shown that a deficiency in the Cart1 gene leads to acrania and meroanencephaly, and importantly, that prenatal treatment with folic acid can prevent these conditions in the mutant mice.

What is the definition of anencephaly according to the Greek etymology mentioned in the text?

According to the text, the Greek term "anencephaly" literally translates to "without a brain." However, this is a simplification, as infants with the condition typically lack the telencephalon, the largest part of the brain, rather than the entire brain structure.

What is the role of the cerebrum and neocortex in relation to anencephaly?

The cerebrum, particularly the neocortex, is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for cognition. In anencephaly, the telencephalon, which includes the neocortex, is absent. This absence means that infants with anencephaly lack the capacity for higher cognitive functions and awareness of their surroundings.

What is the significance of the area cerebrovasculosa in meroanencephaly?

The area cerebrovasculosa is a key feature of meroanencephaly, a rare form of anencephaly. It is described as a protrusion consisting of abnormal, spongy, vascular tissue mixed with glial tissue that fills cranial defects.

What is the role of the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA) in organ donation?

The Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA) is a legal framework that grants individuals the right to decide whether to donate their organs. After a person's death, their family members can also make this decision. This act is relevant to discussions about organ donation from anencephalic infants, as it outlines the legal basis for consent.

What is the concept of "neocortical death" and its relevance to anencephaly?

Neocortical death refers to the irreversible loss of cognitive functioning of the brain, similar to a persistent vegetative state. It is one of the concepts discussed in determining brain death. Its relevance to anencephaly lies in the fact that infants with this condition lack the neocortex, the part of the brain responsible for cognition, raising questions about the definition of life and death in such cases.

What is the typical frequency of anencephaly in Nigeria and Ghana, according to the provided data?

According to the source, anencephaly rates were estimated at 3 per 10,000 births in Nigeria in 1990 and 8 per 10,000 births in Ghana in 1992. These figures suggest potentially higher rates in certain African populations compared to the U.S.

What is the significance of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) codes mentioned for anencephaly?

The ICD codes (ICD-11: LA00.0, ICD-10: Q00.0, ICD-9-CM: 740.0) are standardized numerical classifications used in healthcare to categorize diseases and health problems. Their inclusion for anencephaly indicates how the condition is formally classified and recorded in medical and statistical systems worldwide.

What does the MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) term "D000757" signify in relation to anencephaly?

The MeSH term D000757 is a standardized descriptor used in biomedical literature indexing and searching. Its presence indicates that anencephaly is a recognized subject within the Medical Subject Headings database, facilitating research and information retrieval on the topic.

What is the purpose of the OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) number 206500 associated with anencephaly?

The OMIM number 206500 serves as a unique identifier for anencephaly within the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man database. This database catalogs human genes and genetic disorders, and the OMIM number helps researchers locate detailed genetic information and references related to anencephaly.

What is the significance of the reference to "Ciliopathies" in the context of anencephaly?

The reference to ciliopathies highlights a potential underlying genetic mechanism for anencephaly. It suggests that anencephaly may be part of a broader group of genetic disorders linked to defects in cellular cilia, which are important for developmental signaling pathways. This connection helps categorize anencephaly within a larger framework of genetic diseases.

What does the term "cephalic disorder" mean in relation to anencephaly?

Anencephaly is classified as a cephalic disorder, meaning it is a condition affecting the head or brain. Specifically, it refers to defects that occur in the development of the skull and brain during embryonic stages.

What is the significance of the mention of "autosomal recessive inheritance" regarding anencephaly?

The mention of autosomal recessive inheritance suggests that anencephaly can be passed down through families via genes inherited from both parents. In such inheritance patterns, an individual must inherit two copies of a specific gene mutation (one from each parent) to develop the condition.

What is the "area medullovasculosa" mentioned in the description of craniorachischisis?

The "area medullovasculosa" is mentioned alongside the "area cerebrovasculosa" as being part of the defects in craniorachischisis. While the text doesn't explicitly define it, its context suggests it relates to vascular tissue within the spinal cord defects associated with this severe form of anencephaly.

What is the primary function of the telencephalon, which is typically absent in anencephaly?

The telencephalon is the largest part of the brain and is primarily responsible for higher cognitive functions. This includes processes like thinking, learning, memory, and consciousness, which are mediated by the neocortex that forms a major part of the telencephalon.

How does the risk of neural tube defects in the general population compare to the risk for women who have previously had an affected child?

The background rate of neural tube defects in the general population is approximately 0.1%. This risk increases significantly for women who have previously had a child with a neural tube defect, rising to about 3%.

What is the purpose of the "See also" section in the article?

The "See also" section lists related topics or conditions that a reader might find relevant or interesting. In this case, it includes "Acalvaria" and "Microcephaly," which are other conditions related to cranial or brain development.

What is the role of the Navbox (navigation box) at the end of the article?

The Navbox serves as a navigational tool, providing links to related templates and categories. For anencephaly, it includes classifications like ICD codes, OMIM, MeSH, and links to external resources like MedlinePlus and eMedicine. It also links to related congenital malformations of the nervous system, helping users explore the topic more broadly.

What does the presence of multiple ICD codes (ICD-11, ICD-10, ICD-9-CM) indicate about anencephaly?

The inclusion of multiple ICD codes from different versions (ICD-11, ICD-10, ICD-9-CM) signifies that anencephaly is a recognized medical condition that has been classified and coded across various iterations of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. This ensures consistent medical record-keeping and statistical reporting globally.

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What is Anencephaly?

Definition and Nature

Anencephaly represents a severe cephalic disorder characterized by the absence of a significant portion of the brain, skull, and scalp. This condition arises from a failure in the closure of the rostral (head) end of the neural tube during embryonic development, typically between the 23rd and 26th day post-conception. While the name suggests a complete lack of brain, affected infants usually lack the telencephalon, the largest part of the brain responsible for cognitive functions. The remaining neural tissue is often covered only by a thin membrane, with the skull, meninges, and scalp being absent.

Prognosis and Survival

Anencephaly is considered a neural tube defect that is fundamentally incompatible with prolonged postnatal survival. The vast majority of infants born with this condition do not survive birth, and those who are born alive typically succumb within hours to days due to cardiorespiratory arrest. Consequently, surgical intervention is rarely indicated, except in very rare cases aimed at improving quality of life.

Historical Context

The term "anencephaly" originates from Greek, translating to "without a brain." Historically, physicians like Hippocrates and Galen used similar terminology, noting the resemblance of certain tumors to crabs. Modern understanding clarifies that while the cerebrum is largely absent, a brainstem may be present, allowing for basic reflex actions such as breathing and response to stimuli, though consciousness is not possible.

Signs and Symptoms

Presentation at Birth

Infants born with anencephaly typically present with the absence of the cerebrum and cerebellum. The cranial vault is severely underdeveloped or entirely missing. Neurologically, these infants are usually blind, deaf, and lack awareness of their surroundings. While a brainstem may be present, enabling basic reflexes like breathing and responses to touch or sound, the absence of a functioning cerebrum precludes any possibility of consciousness or higher cognitive function.

Neonatal Period

The neonatal period for infants with anencephaly is characterized by extreme fragility. Survival beyond the first few hours or days is exceptionally rare. The primary cause of mortality is typically cardiorespiratory arrest, stemming from the severe malformations of the central nervous system.

Causes and Risk Factors

Folic Acid's Role

Folic acid (Vitamin B9) is critically important for neural tube formation. Research since 1991 has demonstrated its significance in preventing neural tube defects. For women of childbearing age, particularly those planning pregnancy, a daily intake of 0.4 mg of folic acid is recommended to reduce the risk of neural tube defects, including anencephaly, to approximately 0.03%. Higher doses (5 mg/day) may be prescribed by a physician for women with a history of a previous neural tube defect-affected pregnancy.

Genetic Predispositions

Anencephaly can exhibit patterns of heredity, with evidence suggesting autosomal recessive inheritance. Studies have identified specific genetic factors, such as the homozygous inactivation of the NUAK2 kinase, as potentially leading to anencephaly in humans. Animal models also indicate associations with deficiencies in transcription factors like TEAD2. Women who have previously had a child with a neural tube defect face an increased risk (around 3%) of recurrence compared to the general population's background rate of 0.1%.

Maternal Health Factors

Certain maternal health conditions and medications are associated with an increased risk of neural tube defects. These include uncontrolled insulin-dependent diabetes and the use of specific anticonvulsant medications. Additionally, deficiencies in Vitamin B12 and elevated homocysteine levels have been implicated as contributing factors, alongside obesity.

Pathophysiology and Biology

Neural Tube Closure Failure

Anencephaly is a direct consequence of the incomplete closure of the neural tube, the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system. Specifically, the rostral neuropore fails to seal properly. This developmental failure leads to the absence of the forebrain (prosencephalon) and the overlying cranial structures. The precise molecular mechanisms triggering this failure are complex and involve intricate signaling pathways.

Connection to Ciliopathies

Emerging research suggests that anencephaly may be linked to a class of genetic disorders known as ciliopathies. These conditions arise from dysfunctional molecular mechanisms within the primary cilia, organelles found in many cell types. Defects in cilia can disrupt critical developmental signaling pathways, potentially explaining the multi-symptomatic nature of anencephaly and its association with other genetic syndromes.

Diagnosis

Prenatal Detection

Anencephaly can often be diagnosed with a high degree of accuracy during pregnancy through prenatal screening and diagnostic methods. Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) screening can indicate an elevated level, suggesting a potential neural tube defect. Detailed fetal ultrasound examinations are crucial for visualizing the extent of the cranial malformation and confirming the diagnosis. These methods are vital for identifying anencephaly and other neural tube defects like spina bifida.

Subtypes and Imaging

Anencephaly encompasses several subtypes, including meroanencephaly (characterized by malformed cranial bones and a protrusion of abnormal vascular tissue) and holoanencephaly (where the brain, apart from the brainstem, has entirely failed to form). Craniorachischisis represents the most severe form, involving defects in both the cranial vault and the spinal column, exposing neural tissue. Imaging techniques like X-rays can also reveal the characteristic skeletal abnormalities in stillborn infants.

Prognosis

Extremely Poor Outlook

The prognosis for anencephaly is universally considered extremely poor. The condition is incompatible with sustained life. Most fetuses do not survive gestation, and infants born alive have a life expectancy measured in hours or days. There is no established cure or standard treatment that can alter this outcome. While a recent report detailed a rare case of surgical intervention for quality of life in a twin pregnancy, survival beyond the neonatal period remains exceptionally uncommon.

Epidemiology

Global and Regional Incidence

In the United States, anencephaly occurs in approximately 1 out of every 4,600 births. Incidence rates can vary geographically and ethnically. Historically, higher rates have been observed in certain populations, such as in Nigeria and Ghana. Research in areas like Brownsville, Texas, identified clusters of neural tube defects, highlighting the interplay of factors including folic acid deficiency, vitamin B12 levels, homocysteine, and obesity.

Sex Ratio

Epidemiological studies suggest a potential trend where female infants may be more frequently affected by anencephaly than male infants, although this observation requires careful consideration of statistical methodologies and population variations.

Ethical and Legal Considerations

Organ Donation Debates

The scarcity of pediatric organs for transplantation has brought anencephalic infants into ethical discussions regarding organ donation. Key issues include the potential for misdiagnosis, the "slippery slope" argument concerning the definition of death and involuntary donation, and the limited number of infants who might potentially benefit due to high rates of stillbirth. Proposals have ranged from defining anencephalic infants as legally dead at birth to creating special legal categories.

Legal Frameworks and Cases

Legal frameworks like the Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) and the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA) influence organ donation policies. Landmark cases, such as that of "Baby Theresa" in 1992, highlighted the legal and ethical complexities. In this case, Florida law prevented organ removal from an infant who was legally alive but lacked a functioning brain, leading to organ deterioration before her death. Some jurisdictions, like Brazil, have since extended abortion rights to cases involving anencephalic fetuses, though this remains a subject of ethical debate.

Case Study: Teddy Houlston

In the United Kingdom, Teddy Houlston, diagnosed with anencephaly, became the country's youngest organ donor. His parents made the decision to donate his heart and kidneys after his birth, with his organs being successfully transplanted. This case underscored the profound ethical decisions families face and the potential for organ donation even in the context of such severe conditions.

Research Directions

Genetic and Molecular Basis

Ongoing research focuses on elucidating the genetic and molecular underpinnings of anencephaly. Studies have investigated the role of specific genes, such as the cartilage homeoprotein (CART1) gene, and its association with acrania and meroanencephaly in animal models. The protective effect of prenatal folic acid administration in these models further reinforces its critical role in preventing neural tube closure defects. Understanding these pathways is key to developing more effective prevention strategies.

Related Conditions

Differential Diagnosis and Associated Conditions

Anencephaly is often discussed alongside other congenital malformations of the nervous system, particularly other neural tube defects. These include:

Acephaly: A related condition involving the absence of the head.
Acrania: Characterized by the partial or complete absence of the cranial vault.
Acalvaria: Similar to acrania, involving absence of the skull.
Iniencephaly: A severe defect involving occipital bone and spinal fusion.
Encephalocele: A condition where the brain protrudes through an opening in the skull.
Spina Bifida: A defect where the spinal cord does not close properly.
Rachischisis: A severe form of spina bifida where the neural tube remains open.
Holoprosencephaly: A disorder where the forebrain fails to divide properly.

These conditions share common etiological pathways related to embryonic development and neural tube formation.

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Anencephaly: A Comprehensive Examination

💡 Dive in with Flashcard Learning! 💡

What is Anencephaly? ℹ️

🧠 Definition and Nature

⚠️ Prognosis and Survival

📜 Historical Context

Signs and Symptoms 🩺

👶 Presentation at Birth

🏥 Neonatal Period

Causes and Risk Factors 🧬

💊 Folic Acid's Role

🧬 Genetic Predispositions

💊 Maternal Health Factors

Pathophysiology and Biology 🔬

⚙️ Neural Tube Closure Failure

🔗 Connection to Ciliopathies

Diagnosis 🔍

🤰 Prenatal Detection

📊 Subtypes and Imaging

Prognosis ⏳

💔 Extremely Poor Outlook

Epidemiology 📊

🌍 Global and Regional Incidence

⚖️ Sex Ratio

Ethical and Legal Considerations ⚖️

❤️ Organ Donation Debates

⚖️ Legal Frameworks and Cases

🇬🇧 Case Study: Teddy Houlston

Research Directions 🧪

🔬 Genetic and Molecular Basis

Related Conditions 📚

🔗 Differential Diagnosis and Associated Conditions

Teacher's Corner 🧑‍🏫

Edit and Print this course in the Wiki2Web Teacher Studio

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References

📜 References

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Disclaimer ⚠️

📜 Important Notice

Dive in with Flashcard Learning!

What is Anencephaly?

Definition and Nature

Prognosis and Survival

Historical Context

Signs and Symptoms

Presentation at Birth

Neonatal Period

Causes and Risk Factors

Folic Acid's Role

Genetic Predispositions

Maternal Health Factors

Pathophysiology and Biology

Neural Tube Closure Failure

Connection to Ciliopathies

Diagnosis

Prenatal Detection

Subtypes and Imaging

Prognosis

Extremely Poor Outlook

Epidemiology

Global and Regional Incidence

Sex Ratio

Ethical and Legal Considerations

Organ Donation Debates

Legal Frameworks and Cases

Case Study: Teddy Houlston

Research Directions

Genetic and Molecular Basis

Related Conditions

Differential Diagnosis and Associated Conditions

Teacher's Corner

True or False?

Test Your Knowledge!

Gamer's Corner

Discover other topics to study!

References

Feedback & Support

Disclaimer

Important Notice